2. Speak about the notion of inference.

Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. The process by which a conclusion is inferred from multiple observations is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion may be correct or incorrect, or correct to within a certain degree of accuracy, or correct in certain situations. Conclusions inferred from multiple observations may be tested by additional observations.

This definition is disputable (due to its lack of clarity. Ref: Oxford English dictionary: "induction ... 3. Logic the inference of a general law from particular instances.") The definition given thus applies only when the "conclusion" is general.

A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. 2. The process of reaching such a conclusion: "order, health, and by inference cleanliness".

Example:

All men are mortal

Socrates is a man

Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Inference: as there is no direct relationship between entities and words, the listener's task is

to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring

expression.

can use vague expressions ('the blue thing', 'that icky stuff', 'whatsisname')

can use expressions focusing on one feature ('Mister Aftershave is late today‘)

reference needs to use objectively correct naming, but can work with locally successful

choices of expression

3. Indicate approaches to definition of communication.

7 basic approaches:

Establishing to the norms and exercising forms of control in society;

Creating a community of people;

A form of human interaction;

A kind of influence on people

A way of understanding and perception of the reality;

An exchange of meanings (ideas)

Transmission of information

4. Indicate the functions of communication.

Functions of communication:

To meet basic needs (shelter, food, water)

To enhance a sense of self (plus express oneself)

To socialize, develop relationships (to sustain human existence)

To receive and exchange information

To influence others (to achieve one`s goal)

5. Describe the basic models of communication.

Linear Model – is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the linear model assumes that there is a clear cut beginning and end to communication. It also displays no feedback from the receiver.For example; a letter, email, text message, lecture.

Interactive Model – is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicates that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has “field of experience” which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extend of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.For example – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an answer.

Transactional Model – assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction. Firstly, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is how most conversation are like. The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effect communication area because both communicators share the same meaning of the message.For example – talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking.

• Sender: The sender is what or who is trying to send a message to the receiver.

• Encoder: In the general case, it is not possible to directly insert the message onto the communications medium. For instance, when you speak on the telephone, it is not possible to actually transmit sound (vibrations in matter) across the wire for any distance. In your phone is a microphone, which converts the sound into electrical impulses, which can be transmitted by wires. Those electrical impulses are then manipulated by the electronics in the phone so they match up with what the telephone system expects.

• Message: Since this is a communication engineer's model, the message is the actual encoded message that is transmitted by the medium.

• Medium: The medium is what the message is transmitted on. The phone system, Internet, and many other electronic systems use wires. Television and radio can use electromagnetic radiation. Even bongo drums can be used as a medium (http://eagle.auc.ca/~dreid/overview.html).

• Decoder: The decoder takes the encoded message and converts it to a form the receiver understands, since for example a human user of the phone system does not understand electrical impulses directly.

• Receiver: The receiver is the target of the message.