The gerund

The gerund is the non-finite verb form which also combines the properties of the verb with those of a noun. Similar to the infinitive, it serves as the verbal name of the process, but it has a stronger substantive quality. As different from the infinitive, and similar to the noun, the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive (or common) case or a pronoun (expressing the subject of the verbal process) – The driver’s(his) being rude like that was disgusting. I read about the hostages having been released. -, and it can be used with prepositions.

The combinability of the gerund is also dual, sharing some features of the verb (inside the construction) with some of the noun. The verb-type combinability is shown in combination with nouns-objects, modifying adverbs, semi-functional predicator verbs (start doing, can’t stand doing). Of the noun-type is combinability with finite notional verbs as the object, subject, as prepositional adjunct (object, attribute, modifier), with nouns as prepositional adjunct.

The functions of gerund in the sentence can be:

Subject – Repeating your accusations doesn’t make them more convincing.

Object – He delayed breaking news.

Prepositional object – He didn’t object against our coming here.

Predicative – Luck is believing you’re lucky.

Attribute – There is a pleasant prospect of listening to her story.

The formal sign of the gerund is homonymous with that of the present participle, it is the suffix – ing added to its categorially (not semantically) leading element.

The gerund distinguishes two grammatical categories: the aspect of retrospective coordination and voice. The paradigm includes four forms:

	simple	perfect
active	taking	Having taken
passive	Being taken	Having been taken

Non-objective verbs don’t have passive forms (go).

Since the meaning of the infinitive and the gerund is similar, the reason of usage of the infinitive after verbs want, expect, and the like, and the gerund after avoid, delay, deny, and the like, lies in semantic shade of infinitive having the meaning of purpose, which can be proved by transformation – I want to come. – I want it to happen so, in order me to come. – I deny coming. – I deny the fact, the thing of coming. – It is also brightly reflected in the use of gerund/infinitive with stop, remember and try.

The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying name of the process. The term “present” has nothing to do with time, it is only traditional, can be called “participle I”, or “active”.

It has the derivation morpheme homonymous with the gerund, and completely the same paradigm.

5. Adverbs.

The adverb is defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. Adverbs are characterized by combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different adverbial modifiers. “The woman was crying hysterically.” – an adverbial modifier of manner. “He was nervously anxious’ – an adverbial modifier of property qualification.

From the point of view of the word-building structure adverbs can be simple (very, here, quite, when) and derived: suffix –ly (slowly, firstly), -ways (sideways, crossways), -wise (clockwise, counter-clockwise), -ward(s) (homewards, afterwards). The characteristic adverbial prefix is a- (away, ahead, apart, across).

Some adverbs are converted from other parts of speech: adjectives – fast, late, high, tight, many of them have another form, formed of adjective with the suffix –ly, but with a different meaning: to fall flat into the water – to refuse flatly, to fly high – to raise a highly theoretical question.

From adjectives with –ly adverbs are also converted – daily, weekly, lively, timely.

From prepositions and conjunctions – never before/ never before a meeting, somewhere round/round the corner, to hold within/within a week.

There is a group of preposition-adverb-like words, which form phrasal words – look up, through, after. They are intermediate between functional words and morphemes, particles of semi-morphemic nature.

The subgroups of adverbs – qualitative (-ly)- bitterly, plainly; quantitative (words of degree) and circumstantial (words of pronominal nature).

There are several types of quantitative adverbs, functional words, not possessing nominative value :

1. adverbs of high degree, intensifiers: very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, considerably, pretty, much.

2. Adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse): too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically.

3. Adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, unexpectedly, astonishingly, amazingly.

4. Adverbs of moderate degree: rather, fairly, comparatively, relatively, moderately.

5. Adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit.

6. Approximate degree: almost, nearly

7. Optimal degree: enough, sufficiently, adequately

8. Inadequate degree: insufficiently, intolerably, unbearably, ridiculously

9. Under-degree: hardly, scarcely.

10. Numerical-pronominal adverbs: twice, four times, twofold, manifold – they have full notional value

Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notional and functional. The functional circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature: time, place, manner, cause, consequence – now, here, when, where, so, thus, how, why. Others have nominative value: adverbs of time and place: today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, shortly, recently, seldom, early, late, homeward, eastward, near, far, outside, ashore.

Qualitative adverbs have the category of degrees of comparison: quickly-quicker-quickest-less quickly-least quickly. Adverbs converted from adjectives form degrees of comparison synthetically (fast-faster-fastest), so do “quickly” and “slowly”. Adverbs with the suffix –ly form degrees of comparison with more/most. Adverbs “well, far, much, little, badly” form suppletive degrees of comparison or based on the sound alternation.

Similar to adjectives, adverbs with “most” can be used as elative constructions: He described it most correctly. = very correctly