- •1) Subject of lexicology. Interconnection between lexicology and other branches of linguistic science
- •2)Conversion
- •3)Latin borrowings in the English vocabulary
- •4) Composition
- •5) French and scandinavian borrowings
- •10) What is semantics?
- •6) Semi-affixes
- •7) International words and etymological doublets
- •8) Polysemy as linguistic phenomenon
- •9) Affixation. Native productive affixes
- •11) Semantics of affixes
- •12) The Germanic element in the English vocabulary
- •13) Shortenings, reduplication and back formation.
- •14) Types of semantic components.
- •15) The process of development of new meaning of words
- •16) Antonymy
- •17) The process of change of meaning of words
- •19) Transference based on resemblance (similarity)
- •20) Proverbs and their difference from phraseological units
- •21) Transference of meaning based on contiguity
- •23) Broadening and narrowing of meaning
- •24) The traditional classification of homonyms
- •25) Degradation and elevation of meaning
- •26) The Indo-European element
- •27) Criteria of synonymy
- •28) Classification of homonyms
- •29) Types of connotations of groups of synonyms
- •31) Latin affixes in the English language
- •32) The conditions stimulating the borrowing process
- •33) French affixes in the English language
- •34) Sources of homonyms
- •35) The way borrowed words adopt themselves in the recipient language.
- •36) The principle productive ways of word-building in the English language
10) What is semantics?
The linguistic science at present isn’t able to put forward a definition of meaning which is conclusive.
Generally speaking, meaning can be described as a component of the word, through which a concept is communicated. This component endows the word with the ability of denoting real objects, qualities, actions and abstract notions. The relationships between referent (object, denoted by the word) concept and word are rather complicated. The relation between the word and referent is established only through the concept. On the other hand there is a hypothesis that concepts find their realization through words. It’s only when we hear a spoken word or read a printed word, that the corresponding concept appears in our minds.
The mechanism by which concept (mental phenomena) are converted into words (linguistic phenomena) and the reverse process by which a heard or printed word is converted into a kind of mental picture are not yet understood or described.
The brunch of linguistics which specializes in the study of meaning is called semantics. Semantics studies the expressive aspects of language in general and the meaning of one particular word in all its varied aspects and nuances. So, semantics is language in its broadest, most inclusive aspect. Sounds, words, grammatical forms, syntactical constructions are the tools of language. Other scholars define semantics as the total experience of a speech community: arts, science, practical occupations, amusements, personal and family life.
The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of the word (its meaning presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word)
6) Semi-affixes
Consider the following examples.
"... The Great Glass Elevator is shockproof, waterproof, bomb-proof, bulletproof, and Knidproof1 ..." (From Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator by R. Dahl)
Lady Malvern tried to freeze him with a look, but you can't do that sort of thing to Jeeves. He is look-proof.
(From Carry on, Jeeves by P. G. Wodehouse)
Better sorts of lip-stick are frequently described in advertisements as kissproof. Some building materials may be advertised as fireproof. Certain technical devices are foolproof meaning that they are safe even in a fool's hands.
All these words, with -proof for the second component, stand between compounds and derived words in their characteristics. On the one hand, the second component seems to bear all the features of a stem and preserves certain semantic associations with the free form proof. On the other hand, the meaning of -proof in all the numerous words built on this pattern has become so generalised that it is certainly approaching that of a suffix. The high productivity of the pat-tern is proved, once more, by the possibility of coining nonce-words after this pattern: look-proof and Knidproof, the second produced from the non-existent stem Knid.
The component -proof, standing thus between a stem and an af-fix, is regarded by some scholars as a semi-affix.
Another example of semi-affix is -man in a vast group of English nouns denoting people: sportsman, gentleman, nobleman, salesman, seaman, fisherman, countryman, statesman, policeman, chairman, etc.
Semantically, the constituent -man in these words approaches the generalised meaning of such noun-forming suffixes as -er, -or, -ist (e. g. artist), -ite (e. g. hypocrite). It has moved so far in its meaning from the corresponding free form man, that such word-groups as woman policeman or Mrs. Chairman are quite usual. Nor does the statement Lady, you are no gentleman sound eccentric or illogical for the speaker uses the word gentleman in its general sense of a noble upright person, regardless of sex. It must be added though that this is only an occasional usage and that gentleman is normally applied to men.
Other examples of semi-affixes are -land (e. g. Ire land, Scotland, fatherland, wonderland), -like (e. g. ladylike, unladylike, businesslike, unbusiness like, starlike, flowerlike, etc.), -worthy (e. g. seaworthy, trustworthy, praiseworthy).