In midE some n-s of –n-stems still retain their peculiar features which were traced in the plural.

Eye-eyen

Ere-eren(уши)

Foe- fon(враги)

These forms in early modern E also joined a-stems and got the regular forms of the plural (eyers,ears).Thus by the end of the midE period the N had lost its case category and there were retained 2 cases of which the common case possessed universal functions.It can be used as a subject, object and even as an attr. To another N.( stone wall, a brick house).

Analyzing gisintegration of the case system H.Sweet gave the following subdivisionof the stages of this process.He said-OldE was the period of full endings.MiddleE leveled or reduced endings.ModE-the period of lost endings.( sunu-sone-son).Otto Jesperson believed that loss of Case inflexions was caused by the mixture of oldE and Scandinavian dialects spoken by rhe invadors.Both oldE and Scandinavian were German l-es – that is why in the majority of words roots were the same , but the inflexions were different.They prevented the speakers from proper understanding.That is why they finally were dropped. JESPERSON thought that the mixture of related l-ges was the main reason of disinyegration of the Nominal Case inflexions in E. IVANOVA- the loss of inf-s was caused by the ambiguity of them even in the OldE period, when 3 or 4 cases had one and the same inflexion. 38. The system of personal pronouns in OE

In oe there are besides singular and plural personal pronouns, also dual pronouns for the 1st and 2nd persons.

OE pronouns fell roughly under the same main classes as modern pronouns: personal, demonstrative, interrogative and indefi¬nite. As for the other groups — relative, possessive and reflexive — they were as yet not fully developed and were not always distinctly separat¬ed from the four main classes. The grammatical categories of the pro¬nouns were either similar to those of nouns (in "noun-pronouns") or corresponded to those of adjectives (in "adjective pronouns"). Some fea¬tures of pronouns were peculiar to them alone.

OE personal pronouns had three persons, three numbers in the 1st and 2nd p. (two numbers — in the 3rd) and three genders in the 3rd p. The pronouns of the 1st and 2nd p. had suppletive forms like their parallels in other IE languages. The pronouns of the 3rd p., having originated from demonstrative pro¬nouns, had many affinities with the latter (cf. the forms in Table 6).

In OE, while nouns consistently distinguished between four cases, personal pronouns began to lose some of their case distinctions: the forms of the Dat. case of the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd p. were fre¬quently used instead of the Ace; in fact the fusion of these two cases in the pi was completed in the WS dialect already in Early OE: Ace. eowic and ilsic were replaced by Dat. low, us; in the sg usage was variable, but variant forms revealed the same tendency to generalise the form of the Dat. for both cases.

It is important to note that the Gen. case of personal pronouns had two main applications: like other oblique cases of noun-pronouns it could be an object, but far more frequently it was used as an attribute or a noun determiner, like a possessive pronoun, e. g. sunu min, his faeder (NE my son, his father). Though forms of the Gen. case were em¬ployed as possessive pronouns, they cannot be regarded as possessive pronouns proper (that is, as a separate class of pronouns).

The grammati¬cal characteristics of these forms were not homogeneous. The forms oi the 1st and 2nd p. — min, fire and others — were declined like adjectives to show agreement with the nouns they modified, while the forms of the 3rd p. behaved like nouns: they remained uninflected and did not agree with the nouns they modified.

Singular

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

N ic $u he heo hit

G min $in his hire his

D me $e him hire him

A me,mec $e,$ec hine hie hit

Dual

1st person 2nd person

Wit zit

Uncer incer

Unc inc

Unc,uncit inc,incit

Plural

1person 2 person 3 person

N we ze hie hi hy heo

G ure eower hiera hira hyra hiora heora

D us eow him

A us usic eow eowic hie hi hy heo

A personal pronoun can be accompanied by the pronoun –self-( seolf,sylf).Ex: he hit sylf nezeaseah-he didn`t see it himself.Sometimes the pronoun –self- is used without a personal pronoun.When a personal pronoun is used in an oblique case in the same s-ce with a substantive or a personal pronoun of the corresponding number, a reflexive meaning arises/ Ex- hyrte hine hord-weard- the keeper of the treasure encouraged himself. Occasionally a personal p-n is in such cases joined with the p-n –self- ( ac ic $a sona eft me sylfum andwyrde- bur thereupon I soon answered myself) 39. Personal Pronouns in MidE and Early ModE

In ME there are remained 2 cases system of Prn (the N, the O) The prn in ME after certain phon. changes became ambiguous especially those of the 3d pers. sing and plur.

OE: he(m), heo(f), hit(n), hie(pl) ME: he, hi

In ME 4 forms leveled under “he” or”hi”. This was a neg. change as in ME after the loss of inflexion by the N and Adj. The function of G. dist-ing fell on the Prn and after the rise of ambig. they couldn’t do it.

In MidE a very imp. problem was to be sold by the l-ge that is to overcome the homonymy b/n 3 pers prn above mentioned. the problem was solved in the fol. way:

to indicate the 3d p. pl. the prn “thei” was borrowed from Scand.

The Scand invaders occupied the vast territory during OE and contributed gretly into E vocab and gr-r to a less degree. It’s a very rare phenomena when prn are borr from one l-ge to another as they .. to the eldest layer of voc-ry in each l-ge and are der-d on its own grounds but in this case borrowing of the prn “they” was facilitated by the ex-nce of the dem. prn of the same stem in E itself.

ex. OE Sc thei

their

theim

the prn .. in its oblique cases was phon-ly similar to OE dem. prn which helped the Sc. bor-ing the prn with prn with all its forms to become fixed in the language.

To derive the prn of the 3d p. femin gender they were used in ModE the OE

ex.: dem prn seo (ma) Sc sco (she)

OE heo (were used to derive the prn of the f.g.

“Sco” supported the meaning of the f.g. while the other 2 prns “seo” and “heo” contributed to the phonetic shape of the prn “she”. After thу phon. changes in MidE per. the f-m “seo” through the stage “seo” developed into “she”

ex : heo- he seo – sho, he

After that they took contamination/mixture (may exchange their meaning) of the forms “sho” and “he” which both indicated the f.g. and in the process of cont-tion they exchanged their sounds -> there appeared the forms “sho”, “she”, -> she

“he”, “ho”

In the course of time after the invention of the book printing the form “she” was fixed as the lit. one. To denote the 3d p. f. g. there ap-d a new prn which was der-d on the gr. In MidE pprn of other persons also suffered phon-ly and graphic ch-es typical of that per.

ex. ic >ich -> tend out to be unstable and soon it was dropped but the remaining vowel “i” was lengthened by compensation.

Since this prn in the Sc is one of its princ. parts (s) it began to be spelt through the capital letter in order not to lose it among other w in the Sc

The prn “ e” changed its spelling acc. to the sp. traditions of that per. on the analogy Obj. case “eow” also changed its spel-g and became “yow”. In MidE pers. prn indeed of the OE 4 cases retained only 2 which were the Nom. and Obj cases

The system of pprn in MidE

1. N ich, I 2 thou (m) he, hi (f) she, sho, (n) hit

Obj me the him, hum hir, her hit, him

Plur.

1p 2p 3p

we ye thei, they

ous yow them

you hem

The prn changed the pronunciation of vowel. The1st p. “i” turned into “I” “pu”->thou

thee

thy, thine

The ch. of vowel pron-on are accounted for by the great vowel shift. At 1st the dif. in the use of “thou” -ты and you-вы was the same as in other Eur. L-ges. “thou” was used while addressing a pers. of a younger age or lower social rank.

In the 17th с the address “thou” began to be treated as vulgar . “you” began to be used while addressing a sing p too. Sch believe that this change was infl-ed by the Fr. standard of good manners. As a res. the prn of 2nd p. sing.with all its forms fell into disuse. though even nowadays it’s used in the N. dialects by not very educated pp. 40. Demonstrative Prn.

In OE there were 2 gr. of DP The prn of the 1st gr. was used to refer to a person, thing or event remote in space or time. – of the 2nd gr. indicated ob. events within the speaker’s perception. The declantion of both gr. was very similar though this dif. was to a cert. degree blurred with inflex “-s” which ap-d in the 2nd gr. of prn. DP had 5 cases, 3 gend, 2 memb

sg. m n f plur

N se (the) pet seo pa

G pes pes pere pere, para

D pem pem pera pem, pam

Acc pone p et pa pa

Abl py, pon py, pon - -

In the decl of the prn of the 2d gr there ap-d reg-ly the infix “-s” b/n the root and the case inflection in the oblique cases.

sg m n f plur

N pes pis peas pas

G pis-s-es pis-s-es pis-s-e pissa

D pis-s-um pis-s-um pis-s-e pissum

Acc pis-ne pis pas pas

Abl - pys - -

In MidE DP of the 1st gr were leveled their ph form of the Nom case on the anal. of the oblique cases. This w in MidE reg-ly accompanied Ns and thus began to perfofmthe functions of the def. article. In the 2nd half of the MidE period it lost its case destinations and their rem-ed only on form “the”

The prn of the f.g. “seo” in MidE partic-ed in the devel-те ща the pers Prn “she”. The Prn of the n.g. “p et” survived as the prn “that” (rel prn and conj)

In the 2d gr there survived the form “this” as a counter part to “that”. The plur. form to the prn “that” is supposed to develop from the pl of the 2d gr. “pas”. The pl f-m to the prn “this” is supposed to devel. from the OE f-m “peas”. In MidE DP lost their decl and g. distinctions and retained only № opposition 41. History of the Adjective and Adverb

The Adjective. Loss of –e

Adjectives dropped in MnE the ending-e, which had sig¬nalled the plural and the weak declension in ME. Thus MnE adjec¬tives no longer agree with their substantives in number. This was essential for the syntactic structure of the language.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON

In ME, there appeared alongside synthetic degrees of comparison, phrases consisting of the words moreand most and the adjective. In MnE the two types were differentiated: suffixes of degrees are used for monosyllabic and some dissyllab¬ic adjectives, while the phrases are limited to the other dissyllabic and to polysyllabic ones.

In the 15th and 16th centuries mutation, which had survived in ME in the comparative and superlative of some adjectives is eliminated. Thus, for example, the series long, lenger, lengest is replaced by long, longer, longest.

The only remnant of mutation in degrees of comparison is seen in elder, eldest from the adjective old (alongside older and oldest). However, the forms elder and eldest have been specialized in meaning and use to such an extent that their connection with the ad¬jective old may be doubtful.

The few adjectives which had suppletive degrees of comparison have preserved these forms to the present time.

In Shakespeare's works we often find phrases of the pat¬terns "more -f- comparative in -er", "most + superlative in -est", e. g.", / am more better than Prospero; the Duke of Milan and his more braver daughter could control thee; a walled town is more

worthier than a village; your wisdom should show itself more richer to signify this to the doctor; these kind of knaves I know, which in this plainness harbour more craft and more corrupter ends than twenty silly-looking observants; it hath been the longest night that e'er I watch'd and the most heaviest; in the calmest and most stillest night; the most boldest and best hearts of Rome; this was the most unkindest cut of all; that I love thee best, о most best, believe it; to take the basest and most poorest shape; you his mistress, only for the most worthiest fit; your lordship is the most patient man in loss, the most coldest that ever turned up ace.

Such phrases are an argument against the view that combina¬tions of the types "more -f adjective" and "most + adjective" were analytical degrees of comparison.

The Adverb

In the MnE the suffix -ly became the only productive adverb-forming suffix. This suffix can be joined on to the stem of any ad¬jective whose meaning admits of adverb formation.

The ME adverbs with the -e-suffix, inherited from OE, lost their -e and thus became indistinguishable from the corresponding adjec¬tives. A few adverbs of this type have been preserved in MnE, e. g. fast, loud, hard, as in work hard. The other old adverbs, which coincided with their adjectives, were replaced by new adverbs derived by means of the -ly-suffix.

In the formation of degrees of comparison no change occurred in MnE as against ME. 42. Development of Articles in English.

The indefinite article developed during the MidE from the OE cardinal numeral “an”. It lost its declension and began to accompany nouns lonely because during the process of reconstruction of E grammar when the inflexions were imposed widely by notional parts of speech. It was important to develop noun modifiers on the one hand and the verb modifier which was an article. Being used as a Noun determiner the numeral “an” lost the length of the vowel. Later the consonant “n” began to be dropped before the Nouns beginning with the consonants. The meaning of indefiniteness was characteristic of the numeral “an” from the very beginning.

The definite article developed from the OE demonstrative pronoun “?e” (тот). In OE it was declined and agreed with the Noun modifier in case, number and gender. In MidE it leveled its phonetic form with the oblique cases > “The”. In MidE demonstrative pronouns lost their case forms and the pronoun “se” which has been used before Nouns since OE developed into a noun modifier – the definite article. From the very beginning the definite article was used in anaphoric meaning which is accounted for the original meaning of the pronoun.

In ModE both the definite and the indefinite articles have the same morphological functions: they serve as noun modifiers. They also indicate the beginning of a nominal phrase. E.g. A very carelessly written letter – all the words enclosed between the article to the left and the noun to the right are attributes to this noun.

Semantically however the 2 articles have different functions.

The definite article is used to refer to the person or thing already used in the previous context, i.e. it is used anaphorically.

The indefinite article is a signal of indefiniteness and it shows that a new object is introduced into the topic of conversation. 43. Grammatical Categories of the OE Verb.

Person, Number, Tense, Mood.

The category of person was rather indistinct even in OE. E.g. In the Subj. Mood there were no person distinction. And personal pronouns were used widely to indicate the person and number of the action performed.

The category of tense was represented by the Pr and Past tenses only. There was no Future. In general the OE verb had no analytical forms, but the sources of their development could be traced in OE where they were free-syntactic groups.

The OE verbs were characterized by the forms of the Inf., Pt1 and Pt2, the finite forms in various tenses and moods. E.g. ridan (Inf) – rad (Pt.Sg.) – ridon (Pt.Pl) – riden (Pt2) – ridende (Pt1)

The forms of the Present Indicative were derived from the stem of the infinitive to which personal endings were added.

1. rid-e

2. rid-est Singular

3. rid-e?

In the Pl there were no personal distinctions. 1. >

2. > rid-a?

3. >

The Past tense of the Indicative Mood.

Sg: the form of the P.T. of strong verbs was derived from the 2nd stage of vowel gradation in the 1st and 3rd persons:

1. rad

2. rid-est

3. rad

The form of the 2nd person was derived from the 3d stage of vowel gradation. Weak verbs derived their preterite with the help of the dental suffix.

1. demd-e

2. demd-est

3. demd-e

Preterit Pl for strong verbs corresponded to the 3rd stage of vowel gradation.

1. >

2. > ridon

3. >

The Imperative mood was represented by 2 numbers and was derived from the stem of the infinitive.

Sg rid dem

Pl rid-a? dem-a?

The Subjunctive Mood also had 2 tenses and 2 numbers.

The forms of Pr. Subj. were derived from the root of the Inf to which special endings were added.

Sg rid-e dem-e

Pl rid-en dem-en

In strong verbs: from the 3d stage of vowel gradation (Pret.Pl)

Sg rid-e demd-e

Pl rid-en demd-en

In general the main difference between strong and weak verbs was in the ways which they used to derive their forms of the Preterite. Homonymy of forms was characteristic of OE already. In the PL Indicative the personal ending was one and the same in all the 3 forms. No personal distinctions existed in the forms of the Subj, which means that the importance3 of personal pronouns was high even in that time. In MidE verbal system as well as other notional parts was affected by numerous phonetic and gram changes. The universal phonetic change of reduction of unstressed endings increased the cases of homonymy within the verbal forms.

-an (Inf)

-on (Pret.Pl)

-n (Pt2)

In MidE after the reduction these originally different forms leveled under one and the same ending –n, which was used for the Subj.Mood(Pl), too. In MidE verbal inflexions differed depending on the dialects. There were 3 essential ones: the northern, midland and Southern.

Singular

1. binde(s) binde binde

2. bindes bindest bindest

3. bindes bindeth bindeth

N M S

“es” penetrated into literary language and is used nowadays.

But until the EModE period (17th c) the inflexions –es and –eth were coexisting and were used parallely. But later the Northern form prevailed and the ending –eth became archaic and began to be used in poetry only. The ending –est (3rd person Sg) disappeared only in the 17th c together with the pronoun of the 2nd person Sg – thou. These forms disappeared simultaneously. The inflexion –e of the 1st person was the first to be reduced in the EModE period. In the Pl during the MidE period these were still dialectal peculiarities, too.

bindes binden bindeth

One of these 3 forms served as the basis of the verb “to bind” – the Midland dialect. 44. Structural patterns of 2-member s-s and their development.

In OE 2-mem. S-ces were represented by 3 essential models: SP( subject, predicative),SPO,SPComplement( глагольное восполнение).Each of these modelswas represented by a number of variants.

SP-3 variants

1)SP

Winas wexon ( ветры продули)

2) with impersonal subject. Hit(= it).S-ces of this kind were used to describe various phenomena of nature and the pred. in them was expressed by impersonal verbs: lihtan(светать),rinan( rain),sniwan( snow).

2)variant had the introductory -??r -which always stood in the initial position.This variant however in ModE could not be taken for an independent s-ce model though it looks like structures «there is, there are» bec. The word-order was not fixed at that time and the pred. often might be separated from the subject.

SPO 1) SPOdirect in the Acc Case- Hie zefhmede $one here ( они разбили то войско)

2)SPOindirect(oblique cases)—He feznode his tocymes (он обрадовался его приходу).

3)SPOindirect+O direct.—hie him (indirect) acsodon d?t bizspell(dir).

SPComplement

Usu.complements followed a link verb ,together with which they formed a compound nominal predicate.In OE the number of link-verbs was limited- beon(wesan),weordan ( to become)

donne weart? he him wrad on mode ( тогда стал он себе гневный духом).

The MidE phonetic change(reduction of unstressed endings) led to changes in morphology and syntax. Agrement and government lost their importance in MidE after the loss of inflexions.New means of word-connection began to be used widely( fixed w-order, adjoining and prepositions).Essential types of 2-mem.s-ces survived in MidE and in EarlyModE.but they got the fixed w-order now. In ModE and EModE periods- a great number of new linking words.In OE-only2 ( beon=to be, weor?an-становиться.)In MidE s-ces having the structure SPPredicative Adjunct serves as the basis for the development of new link. v-s. A predicative adjunct –part of a s-ce having double syntactic relations.On the 1 hand it is connected with the predicate and serves as a kind if adverbal modifier to it.On the other-it is connected with the subject of the s-ce to which it ascribes a certain quality, like an attribute.

Feond treddode,eode yrre-mod( pred.adj).-враг наступал, шёл ,вредный духом.

In the course of time there took place a semantic shift from the verb to the predicate adjunct, whoch became the semantic centre of the combination V+Predicate Adjunct.while the Verb itself began gradually loose its own meaning.After it had weakened its own lexical meaning,its combinatoric abilities widened.In modernE the verb -to go-can be met in: to go mad, he has gone sentimental- it no longer expresses the meaning of motion, but serves as a pure link verb.

So, by the end of 17 c. e grammar was enriched by quite a number of link verbs-to go, fee,stand.lie,get,make 45. History of Word-Order through the Periods of the EL.

1) In OE

OE was a typical inflexional language. So, the inflexions served as means of w-ch and w-connection in a sentence. The form of every notional word even taken out of the context informed of its syntactic function. E.g. A Noun in the Nom Case – the subject.

Acc Case – the Direct Object

The finite verb was always a predicate, and the non-finite – a part of the predicate. For these reasons in OE as well as in Mod Russian word order was not fixed. Nevertheless even in OE there could be distinguished 3 essential types of word order:

1. Direct WO.

It was found in those cases when the subj stood before the pred. Though other parts of the sentence might occur before or after them. E.g. ?e ic ?ehate hit. [Тебе я приказываю это].

2. Indirect/Inverted WO.

It was usually produced by the initial position of such adv of time and place as nu (now); ?a, ?onne (then); hie (here); ne (neg particle).

E.g. ?onne forou hee. [Тогда отправились они].

In case of inversion the pred stood before the subj. Such cases were called “fulled inversion”. If a pred was of a compound structure, that is consisted of 2 words, inversion was called “partial”. That usually took place when the first part of the pred was expressed by the words beon (быть), habban (иметь). Sometimes even OE inversion could be used to shape the information structure of the sentence and to emphasize the subj of the sentence and represent it as the comment (rheme). If the pred was of a compound structure the 1st part of it was usually placed in the initial position.

3. Synthetic WO In this case the pred stands in the final position of the sentence and all the secondary parts of the sentence are enclosed between the subj and pred. As for the secondary parts of sentence, their position in OE was absolutely free and quite often they were distanced, separated from those words which they were in certain syntactic relations. An Obj could be separated from the verb, a Noun in apposition(приложение) was separated from the proper name. Even in OE cases of detached prepositions could be observed.

2) in MidE The MidE grammar was characterized by the universal process of reduction of inflexions and a great number of ambiguous gram forms app. as a result the form of the word taken alone could no longer inform of its syntactic function. In order to overcome this ambiguity E. began developing in MidE new gram means of w-connection and for expressing syntactic function of words.

First of all the process of fixation of WO began in the MidE. In OE the direct WO was represented only by the group subj-pred. While the positions of other parts of the sentence were not fixed. In MidE the fixed WO was characteristic of 3 essential parts: subj, pred, Obj. The Obj got its fixed position after a verb and the function of the Noun since then began to be distinguished regarding its position before or after a Verb.

An attributive at that time also got its regular position before a noun. But if there were 2 objects for the same verb (direct and indirect) their positions remained interchangeable, which can be observed even in ModE. [E.g. They gave him a task. They gave a task to him.] In MidE some adv mod-s of time and place could still produce inverted WO of principle parts. But the structure subj-pred-obj began dominating starting with MidE. And the change of this fixed WO can cause the change of the sentence meaning or its distraction.

Adv mod-s of frequency (never, ever, always, just) began to be enclosed between the parts of the analytical verbal forms which had developed by the beginning of EModE. [E.g. He had never met the man before. I’ve just come.]

In general the modern rule of WO had been developed by the end of the EModE period. 46. History of the Negative Sentence.

All ancient Germanic sentences were characterized by the feature of polynegation, i.e. several negative words could be used in one and the same sentence. In OE in this case the neg particle “ne” could combine with negative pronouns, adverbs or conj.

At the same time in OE there were sentences where only one negative word was used. In OE the negative particle “ne” could easily combine with most frequently used verbs, pronouns and adverbs. And thus, there were very popular contracted forms: ne is > nis; ne wis > n?s; ne w?ron > n?ron; ne wilde > nilde; ne wolde > nolde.

In OE there was tendency to support “ne” by another negative word which might be the negative particle “na” (ne…na) or nacht. In MidE nacht developed graphically and phonetically: naht > naght > naught [naut] > not.

Starting with MidE. the particle “ne” was never used alone, but it was always accompanied first by the form “naght” and in late MidE. when “nacht” transformed into Mod “not” it remained the only signal of a negative meaning. But at that time the particle “not” didn’t have a fixed position in a sentence and it could stand before or after the predicate and no auxiliary “do” was used in negation at that time. E.g. He not knowett it. [Он не знает этого].

The form of double negation ne-not disappeared completely in the 16th century only. By that time there had developed in the language almost all the analytical forms of the verb, except the Continuous Aspect and the analytical Subj which were still in the process of development in EModE. There developed a tendency to place the negative particle not before the parts of the analytical form of the verb. And the first combination of negation in the Indefinite Aspect derived with the help of “do” were registered in the 15th century. E.g. Thou does not love her. [Ты ее не любишь].

The contracted forms of negation (don’t; won’t; isn’t) became regular only in the 2nd half of the 17 century. The use of the auxiliary “do” in the negative sentences also became regular at the same time. In all the cases above described we spoke about verbal negation, the neg which is connected to the predicate but since polynegation was still characteristic of MidE there were many other ways of expressing a neg meaning. These were numerous neg adverbs and pronouns (non, noone, nothing, noman, nolonger, in/by no way)

In MidE each of these words of phrases would accompany the neg particle “not” and as a result – polynegation appeared in a sentence, and cases of it could be met all through EModE. They began to disappear at the end of the 18th c under the pressure of Normative Grammar.

In Mod Theoretical Grammar the neg sentence is interpreted in 2 ways:

1) According to one viewpoint – the neg sentence is proper in which negation is expressed through one of the principle parts. E.g. Nobody has come. He hasn’t come.

In all other cases the sentence should be treated as an affirmative one because negation doesn’t affect predicative relations in a sentence. Probably we might accept this viewpoint on former syntactic rights, but semantically in secondary parts of the sentence obj-s or adv mod-s of time can express a very explicit neg meaning. E.g. I saw nobody there. I have never been to Paris.

2) The 2nd viewpoint in which negation is understood in a wider sense of meaning, sentences can also be treated as a subkind of neg sentences.

47. The history of interrogative and Exclamatory s-ces

In OE- 2 types- general & special.General were derived with the help pf full or partial inversion.full inversion was found if the predicate consisred of 1 word only( zehyrst duda word?-слышишь ли ты то слово?Partial inversion was found in those cases when the predicate consisted of 2 words, the 1st of them was placed in the initial position-which was an interrogative pronoun or adv.If an interrog.word represented the subject of the s-ce , there was no inversion

Hwa is se man?( who is the man?)In other cases full or partial inversion was used to derive a special question. Hw?f sceal ic sinzan?(что должен я петь?) Interrogative w-s- hwa(who), hw?f (what),hwylc(which), hwy(why), hu(how),hw?r ( where), hwonne( when).

Inversion was quite regular in MidE period and at that time many analytical forms appeared-the Future Ind.,PerfecyAspect,Passive Voice.As a result partial inversion became prevailing both in gen.and spec.q-s.At the same time full inversion still remained the only way of asking a q-n(there was no auxiliary in the predicate).In 15-16 c.there could be met- Eat cats mice?these s-ces were ambiguous bec.by that time the fixed w-order had developed and the position after the verb was characteristic of direct object.(Have you seen the cat?)In the same way s-ce of this kind-Call you?was ambiguous.In order to overcome this ambiguity the analytical form of the Ind.Aspect began to be developed in ModE,when the aux. –do,did-began to be used before the infinitive of a notional verb.( He does call me=calls, He did ask me a question=asked).The insertion of the aux.-do- made it a convenient device in q-s and negations.In affirm. s-ces the aux.-do-was lost,bec.single verb could express both the gram.and lexical information.S-ces with the inversion toll the mid of 18th c.(Shakespeare-we come across both variants-

How like you this play? What do you call this play?Know you to whom you speak?

Exclamatory s-s.

Difference from affirmative- in intonation.

D?t w?s zod cyninz( и славный же был тот король!)At the end of midE there developed excl.s-s with What-how.( what a mighty knight is he!) 48. History of 1-member s-s.

In OE 1-mem s-s were represented by 3 types- impersonal,imperative,indefinite-personal.

Impersonal s-s had 2 ess. parts- the V in 3person sing.+the noun/pronoun in the Dat.

Me hynzried-мне хочется есть.Him w?s mannes dearf ( ему была в людях нужда).They were very similar to what Russians call «безличное предл.». But they can be called impersonal only from ћ formal gram.viewpoint, because there is no noun/prn in the Nom. to be taken as a subject. That’s a contradiction b/w semantic&syntactic structures. In midE when considerable changes affected syntax and ћ word order became fixed the typical s-se strucrure became-SubjPredObj. In order to submit Impersonal sent-s to the general tendency the formal subject-hit- began to be used in the initial position: hit thinketh me forgyf him that- мне кажется, тебе следует простить ему это.hit liketh me-мне нравится. In modE these impers.s-s suffered furthered changes-they were involved into the paradigm of 2-mem s-s as it wasn’t appropriate to begin ћ sent. With an inanimate subj., that’s why the structure transformed: I like it.

Imperative s-s in OE had formal distinctions, because ћ verb in the imper.mood had number characteristics, like in modRus. The sent. mb expended by the direct addresses (pers.prn&pers.names).

Through all the periods ћ structure of ћ Imper.sent remained unchanged, but in the course of time ћ forms of ћ plur.Imper. were lost. Instesd in MidEng there developed an analytical construction used to address a command to a group or a speaker himself (using ћ prototype of modern LET). So a special paradigm was formed.

Indef.pers.s-s in OE were formed with the help of a spec.prn: man, men, me.

In midEng there appeared a new type of 1-memb s-s, composed of Vpas+an adv.modif.

Eng. Lost its pers.prn MAN

To convey the same idea another pattern developed:2-memb sentence with the subj. ONE or THEY 49. The History of the Future Tense.

In OE the V had no specific forms for expressing a future action. The idea of the Future action could be expressed in 2 ways: 1) consisted in using the form of the present tense which was expanded by the adverbal modifier of time. This way is used frequently in OE translations of Latin texts (e.g.: Ic lufзe todaeз oththe tomerзen). Here the idea of the future action is expressed lexically with the help of modifier “tomerзen”. 2) represented by combinations of OE preterite present verbs – willan, scullan, mote, maзan + Inf. Preterite present verbs expressed modal meanings of various kind. Scullan – meaning of obligation as well as mote (no Inf). Willan – volition, maзan – probability.

A specific feature of modal verbs is that they don’t name any action but express a potential character of an action by the following infinitive.

In OE combinations of Preterite present verb with the Inf didn`t yet form analytical combinations of the V but they can be treated only as compound verbal modal predicates because the lexical meaning of each Modal verbs was quite prominent while in auxiliaries this meaning should be lost.

e.g.: Ic wille wyrcan min settl on northdaele.

In OE the 1st component of modal predicate had a distict lexical meaning of its own and besides parts of a modal predicate quite often were distanced 1 from another by other parts of a sentence.

In MidE the verbs willan and scullan became the leading means for expressing a future action while maзan and mote fell into disuse. At the same time the Vs shall and will were gradually losing their modal meanings in its combination with the following Inf. While their temporal meaning of futurity was at the same time becoming more prominent the V shall developed its temporal meaning faster than the V will.

At the end of the MidE period the V shall developed into a tense auxiliary because the meaning of obligation could hardly be traced.

e.g.: Thou shall lykne him to hounde. (ты сравнишь его с собакой)

As for the V will its own meaning of volition didn`t disappear completely, it can be felt even nowadays.

e.g.: A tale will I telle = историю я расскажу/хочу рассказать.

By the end of Mid E period after the loss of modal meaning by the V shall and will and after the fixation of the position of the Inf immediately after these words it became possible to speak about the development of the analytical forms of the future.