10 Interjections

Interjections are universally outlined parts of speech without generalized grammatical form, without specific syntactical function, but possessing generalized grammatical meaning of emotions, feelings and human inclinations. Interjections are grammatically unchanged words to express various feelings and emotions. They differ from other words by their origin, nomination, phonetic structure and syntactical characteristic. According to the origin interjections are divided into primary and secondary. Primary originate from reflexive toucries and sounds. They are immediate direct reactions os the subject and they perform the role of language signals understood by all language speakers because such signals are meaningful. Primary interjections include: hush, tutt, hey, and differ in many language correpsonding signals because of articulatory peculiarities. Secondary interjections originate from notional words which are retought into words expressing emotions. God, goodness, come, look, lord. Secondary interjections are used paralel to their sources and they're differentiated contextually. Secondary interjections are homonymous to notional words. Semantically interjections express a meaning which specifies by intonation and gestures. Semantically there are two main types of interjections: emotional which are most numerous in English and imperative which are clearly directed at the listener and imperative meaning dominates over emotional. Imperative interjections are more contextually and situationally conditioned. However, some emotional interjections are situationally limited. all interjections are meaningful, however, emotional interjections express feelings in general.

Structurally interjections are divided into simple and compound. Simple consist of one word, compound - of phrase. Primary interjections are mostly simple. The compound include tutt-tutt, hey-ho. secondary interjections are mostly compound.

Syntactically interjections do not express independent functions. Some interjections developed from phrases and sentences simplified phonetically and structurally. Interjections originate from various sources and gradually acquire emotional meanings. Sometimes interjections are used as parentheses. Boundary peripheries of interjections include: etiquette formulas. They don't express emotions, but sometimes may be emotionally colored. Etiquette formulas don't lose their correlation with large syntactical structures. The second periphery group includes sound imitations or onomatopoeic words. some sound imitations become interjections, but the process is slow. The third group is cries and calls of animals. Interjections in English make up a complex system of emotionally colored words.

11/Functional parts of speech.

include traditionally tow lined parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions and article and nontraditional part of speech - particle.

Article is a part os speech with the meaning of reference, with two allomorphs of the indifinite article a and an and without an independent syntactical function. indefinite article originates from the cardinal numeral 1 while the definite article from the demonstrative pronoun this.. the questions concerning articles include:

1. the number of articles

2. the status of articles

3. the function of articles.

the number of articles may be 2 or 3 which depends on whether the article is understood as a word or a moorpheme. if article is a morpheme preceeding nouns and it is a part of analitical construction then there are can be 3 articles: definite, indefinite and 0. if article is a word there are only 2 of them: definite and indefinite because 0 word is impossible to exist. Article is a transitory phenomenon between morphology and syntax. On the one hand it marks the noun which likens articles with a mropheme. On the other hand, it is an indpendent word without independent syntactical function. Articles perform various functions in English. The main function for the definite article is identifying. Usually the known object or the singular object is preceeded by the definite article.

The sun comes up in the east.

The man who entered the room was broad shouldered.

In the second example the definite article performs the limiting function. the definite articles is used before the names of oceans, rivers, seas, but not lakes. it preceeds the names of the mountain ridges, but not individual mountains. it preceeds the compound names of the countries, organizations used in abbreviations. for example: the USA. but: great britain. only one city the hague is used with a definite article.

the main function of an indefinite article is classifying. in a text indefinite article perform anaphorical reference. both definite and indefinite article perform generalizing functions. The articles are contextually dependent and represent major difficulty for a non native speaker.

Prepositions are functional words without grammatical form, without independent syntactical function and without the generalizing grammatical meaning, but prepositions are used to express subordinative relations between notional or lexical words. Prepositions are words with obligatory presubstantive positions. the nucleus in the prepositional phrase may be any part of speech. With the verbs prepositions occupy the postverbal position making up phrasal verbs.

prepositions like other functional words are complex and ambiguous phenomenon. On one hand, they are independent word, while on the other hand, they ser e for other words.

What are the main problems?

Their meaning. it is definitely relational not independent, not existing without head words, but grouped according to the relation of place, time and logic, and very often one and the same preposition may be used to express all three relations. for example:

on tuesday

on the table

on purpose

this semantic classification is not ideal because it doesn't reflect polysemy of prepositions. prepositions of space and temporal prepositions have a brighter and clearer meaning tha logical because logical prepositions have a shade of abstract meaning.

another classification of prepositions is based on indicating factor: including right indicator and left indicator. there can be double indicators: to eat with a hand, with a knife, with you. some prepositions may be omitted especially in the headlines , and english is a language with separated prepositions from the head word: what are you laughing at?

prepositions are often identical to adverbs and particles in their sound forms. otto jespersson refered such words to particles. special role in this respect belongs to the words before, fater and since because they may denote three parts of speech.

she came after we had left.

jill came tumbling after jack.

jill came tumbling after.

prepositions express relations with words and phrases while conjunctions connect words, phrases, parts of a sentence and independent sentences. What unites prepositions and conjunctions? Cunjunctions indicate relations of equality or dependence, in other words, status relations. due to the express relations conjunctions are divided into coordinative and subordinative. Subordinate conjunctions introduce dependent predicative units. Coordinative conjunctions unite words, phrases and predicative units, parts of sentences or independent sentences.

according to their structure conjunctions may be simple, complex and compound (phrasal). the number of simple conjunctions exceedsthat of complex.

according to the sentence usage conjunctions are divided into single, repetitive and pair or correlative: no sooner than, hardly when, either or,

conjunctions are words genetically connected with other classes of words. many conjunctions originate from adverbs which results in grammatical homonymy.

quick, but wrong.

nothing but that.

went away but an hour ago.

coordinative conjunctions are usually divided according to their meaning:

1. connecting onjunctions: and, both and, or.

2. dividing conjunctions.

3. conjunctions of reasons.

but conjunctions are flexible in their meaning.

john eats apples and john eats pears.

john eats apples, and his brother drives a ford.

john eats apples, and many new yorkers drive fords

boys eat apples, and mary threw a stone at the frog.

john is a strict vegetarian and he eats lots of meet.

john eats apples and john eats fruit.

presupposition is a linguistic notion which indicates conditions of the correct understanding of the utterance or in general correct usage of word.

Particles.

Particles are most difficult parts of speech. They’re morphologically unchangeable; express the shades of subjective attitude of the speaker to that utterance on the whole or to its part. Usually particles are not mentioned as an independent class words in western grammars. In whole English grammar particles represent an independent part os speech, functional words which specify limit or enhance the meaning of other wods in a sentence, but don't express grammatical relations between them. Particles have a limited weakened lexical meaning which is realistic only in their function. Particles are divided semantically into modal, emotional and formal particles. Formal particles include mainly two: not and to. Particle to is historically formed from the preposition to which gradually weakened to a particle being used as indicator of english infinitive. Modal and emotional particles specify the meaning of a word. They cinlude such particles as even, only, else, etc. such particles classify the meaning of the specified word and practically all particles clarify semantics within a sentence. Modal particles may be argued because all particles express some evaluative and thus subjective meaning: scarcely, hardly, may be call modal and evaluative. so, classification of particles is an argued question of english grammar. many particles limit the meaning of a sentence member, for example: barely, simply, solely, etc. morphologically english particles aren't changed. They derive from aderbs, adjectives, pronouns, conjunctions by means of conversion. the majority of particles represent simple monosyllabic words. the unsolved questions include:

1. Syntactical functions of particles. Some grammarians suppose that they don't have independent syntactical functions, while others think that their function is two lining. Still others suppose that particle determine the whole sentence or its part, and in this respect they're close to articles which determine only nouns.