- •§ 1. Translation studies
- •§ 2. Semiotic approach
- •§ 3. Communicative approach
- •§ 4. Dialectics of translation
- •3. Translation and culture are inseparable.
- •4. Reflection and creativity in translation.
- •§ 5. Translation invariant
- •§ 6. Unit of translation
- •§ 1. Classification criteria
- •§ 2. Machine translation
- •§ 3. Translation and interpreting
- •§ 4. Functional classification
- •§ 1. Adequate and equivalent translation
- •§ 2. Literal translation
- •§ 3. Free translation
- •§ 4. The concept of 'untranslatability'
- •§ 2. Pragmatic level
- •3. Situational level
- •§ 5. Transformational equivalence
- •§ 6. Lexical and grammatical equivalence
- •§ 2. Translation transcription
- •§ 3. Transliteration
- •§ 4. Calque translation
- •§ 5. Grammar transformations
- •§ 6. Lexical transformations
- •§ 7. Complex transformations
- •§ 1. Translation process
- •2. Transformational model of translation
- •3. Semantic model of translation
- •§ 2. Situational model of translation
- •§ 3. Transformational model of translation
- •4. Semantic model of translation
- •§ 5. Psycholinguistic model of translation
- •§ 2. Translation in the middle ages
- •§ 4. Enlightenment translation (17-18th c.)
- •§ 5. Translation in the 19th century
- •§ 6. Translation in the 20th century
- •§ 1. Old russian culture and translation
- •§ 2. Translation in the 18th century
- •§ 3. Russian translation in the first half of the 19th century
- •§ 4. Translation in the second half of the 19™ century
- •§ 5. Translation at the turn of the century
- •§ 6. Translation in the 20th century
- •§ 1. Translating tense and aspect forms
- •§ 2. Translating passive voice forms
- •§ 3. Translating the subjunctive mood forms
- •§ 1. Translating the infinitive
- •§ 2. Translating the gerund
- •§ 3. Translating the participle
- •§ 4. Translating absolute constructions
- •§ 2. Constructions with causal verbs
- •§ 3. Constructions with the verbs to have, to get
- •§ 4. Causative constructions with non-causal verbs
- •§ 1. Translating personal pronouns
- •§ 2. Translating possessive pronouns
- •§ 3. Translating relative pronouns
- •§ 4. Translating the pronoun one
- •§ 5. Translating the pronoun каждый / все
- •§ 6. Translating partitive pronouns some / any
- •§ 7. Translating demonstrative pronouns
- •§ 1. Translating the indefinite article
- •§ 2. Translating the definite article
- •§ 3. Translating the zero article
- •§ 1. Features of the attributive phrase
- •§ 2. Translating the attributive cluster
- •§ 1. Communicative structure of the english and russian sentence
- •§ 2. Word order change due to the functional sentence perspective
- •§ 3. Sentence partitioning and integration
- •§ 1. Principles of punctuation in english and russian
- •Information is, the more separated (by punctuation marks) the sentence parts are.
- •§ 3. Using the dash
- •§ 4. Using quotation marks
- •§ 5. Using the colon and semicolon
- •§6. Using the ellipses
- •§ 1. Types of translation equivalents
- •§2. Interaction of word semantic structures
- •§ 3. Word connotation in translation
- •§ 4. 1Ntralinguistic meaning
- •§ 5. Context-bound words
- •§ 1. Realia and equivalent-lacking words
- •§ 2. Types of realia
- •§ 3. Ways of translating realia
- •§ 4. Translating people's names
- •§ 5. Translating geographical terms
- •§ 6. Translating published editions
- •§ 7. Translating ergonyms
- •§ 1. Translation factors
- •§ 2. Translation technique
- •§ 3. Terms in fiction and magazines
- •§ 1. Metaphor and the phraseological unit
- •§ 2. Interlingual metaphoric transformations
- •§ 3. Ways of idiom translation
- •§ 4. Challenges in translating idioms
- •§ 1. Definitions
- •§ 2. Lexical metonymic transformation
- •§ 3. Predicate translation
- •§ 4. Syntactic metonymic transformations
- •§ 1. Definition
- •§ 2. Conversive transformation
- •§ 3. Shifting negative modality
- •§ 4. Reasons for antonymic translation
- •§1. Reasons for differences in word combinability
- •§ 2. Translation of adverbial verbs
- •§ 3. Translating synonym condensation
- •§ 1. Compounds
- •§ 2. Conversion
- •§ 3. Affixation
- •§ 4. Abbreviation
- •§ 1. Concept of pragmatics
- •§ 2. Text pragmatics
- •§ 3. Author's communicative intention
- •§ 4. Communicative effect upon the receptor
- •§ 5. Translator's impact
- •§ 1. Language and speech functions
- •§ 2. Interpersonal function and modality in translation
- •§ 3. Expressive function in translation
- •§ 4. Phatic function in translation
- •§ 5. Conative function in translation
- •11(1111. I*, imm'mPil //mm*, ъщчщмш n
- •§ 1. Functional style, register: definition
- •§ 2. Translating scientific and technical style
- •§ 3. Translating bureaucratic style
- •§ 4. Translating journalistic (publicistic) I .11
- •§ 1. Translation of metaphors and similes
- •§ 2. Translation of epithets
- •§ 3. Translation Ol periphrasis
- •§ 4. Translation of puns
- •§ 5. Translation of allusions and quotations
- •§ 1. Norms of transution
- •§ 2. Quality control of the translation.
- •§ 1. Professional ethics, etiquette, and protocol
- •§ 2. Code of professional conduct
- •§ 3. Protocol ceremonies
ББК 81.2-923 П78
Рецензенты:
А.В. Михеев, канд. филол. наук, проф., Graduate School of Translation and Interpretation, Monterey Institute of International Studies, CA., USA; В.П. Кочетков, канд. филол.наук, проф., зав. каф. английского языка Восточного института ДВГУ;
Элизабет Стэнсиу (языковой редактор), магистр гуманитарных наук, волонтер Корпуса мира
■
ПрошннаЗ.Г. П 78 Теория перевода (с английского на русский и с русского на английский
язык): Учебник на англ. яз. - Изд. 2-е, испр. - Владивосток: Изд-во Дальне-вост. ун-та, 2002. - 240 с.
ISBN 5-7444-0957-2
Учебник по теории перевода предназначен для студентов переводческих отделений. Созданный на основе типовой программы по переводу, он раскрывает такие разделы, как общая и частная теория перевода; последняя основывается на сопоставлении английского и русского языков.
Для студентов, преподавателей, переводчиков-практиков и всех тех, кто интересуется вопросами изучения иностранных языков и перевода.
Пвбсзсбья», ББК81.2-923
ISBN 5-7444-0957-2 © ИадвПЛЬОТВО Дальневосточного
уникргиичи. 2002
Содержание
:■
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ....................................................................................................8
РЕКОМЕНДУЕМАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА..................................................................9
PART I. GENERAL ISSUES OF TRANSLATION................12
CHAPTER 1. What Is Translation?...................................................12
§ 1. TRANSLATION STUDIES...........................................................................12
§ 2. SEMIOTIC APPROACH................................................................................13
§ 3: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH................................................................14
§ 4. DIALECTICS OF TRANSLATION..............................................................15
§ 5. TRANSLATION INVARIANT................................:....................................16
§ 6. UNIT OF TRANSLATION............................................................................17
CHAPTER 2. Types of Translation.........................,..........................18
§ 1. CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA....................................................................18
§ 2. MACHINE TRANSLATION.........................................................................19
§ 3. TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING....................................................20
§ 4. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION.............................................................23
CHAPTER 3. Evaluative Classification Of Translation......................24
§ 1. ADEQUATE AND EQUIVALENT TRANSLATION.................................24
§ 2. LITERAL TRANSLATION........................................................................... 25
§ 3. FREE TRANSLATION................................................................................. 26
§ 4. THE CONCEPT OF 'UNTRANSLATABILITY'.........................................27
CHAPTER 4. Translation Equivalence...............................................29
§1. TYPES OF EQUIVALENCE..........................................................................29
§ 2. PRAGMATIC LEVEL....................................................................................30
§ 3. SITUATIONAL LEVEL................................................................................31
§ 4. SEMANTIC PARAPHRASE.........................................................................31
§ 5. TRANSFORMATIONAL EQUIVALENCE.................................................32
§6. LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE................................32
§ 7. THE LEVELS OF EQUIVALENCE HIERARCHY....................................33
CHAPTER 5. Ways of Achieving Equivalence.................................... 33
§ 1. TYPES OF TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES...............................................33
§ 2. TRANSLATION TRANSCRIPTION........................................................... 34
§ 3. TRANSLITERATION....................................................................................36
§ 4. CALQUE TRANSLATION............................................................................38
§ 5. GRAMMAR TRANSFORMATIONS...........................................................38
§ 6. LEXICAL TRANSFORMATIONS...............................................................40
§ 7. COMPLEX TRANSFORMATIONS.............................................................42
CHAPTER 6. Translation Models.....................................................44
§1. TRANSLATION PROCESS...........................................................................44
3
§ 2. SITUATIONAL MODEL OF TRANSLATION...........................................44
§ 3. TRANSFORMATIONAL MODEL OF TRANSLATION..........................46
§ 4. SEMANTIC MODEL OF TRANSLATION.................................................47
§ 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MODEL OF TRANSLATION...............................48
PART П. HISTORY OF TRANSLATION............................49
CHAPTER 1. Western Traditions Of Translation..............................49
§ 1. TRANSLATION DURING ANTIQUITY....................................................49
§ 2. TRANSLATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES..................................................50
§ 3. RENAISSANCE TRANSLATION................................................................51
§ 4. ENLIGHTENMENT TRANSLATION (17-18th c.).....................................53
§ 5. TRANSLATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY...............................................55
§ 6. TRANSLATION IN THE 20TH CENTURY...............................................57
CHAPTER 2. History Of Russian Translation...................................58
§ 1. OLD RUSSIAN CULTURE AND TRANSLATION...................................58
§ 2. TRANSLATION IN THE 18TH CENTURY...............................................60
§ 3. RUSSIAN TRANSLATION IN THE FIRST HALF OF
THE 19TH CENTURY...................................................................................63
§ 4. TRANSLATION IN THE SECOND HALF OF
THE 19TH CENTURY...................................................................................66
§ 5. TRANSLATION AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY............................. 68
§ 6. TRANSLATION IN THE 20TH CENTURY...............................................69
PART III. GRAMMAR PROBLEMS OF
TRANSLATION...............................................................,..71
CHAPTER 1. Formal Differences Between
Source Text And Target Text........................................................71
CHAPTER 2. Translating Finite Verb Forms.....................................72
§ 1. TRANSLATING TENSE AND ASPECT FORMS......................................72
§ 2. TRANSLATING PASSIVE VOICE FORMS................................................75
§ 3. TRANSLATING THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD FORMS...........................77
CHAPTER 3. Translating Non-Finite Verb Forms.............................78
§ 1. TRANSLATING THE INFINITIVE.............................................................78
§ 2. TRANSLATING THE GERUND.................................................................81
§3. TRANSLATING THE PARTICIPLE...........................................................82
§ 4. TRANSLATING ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS....................................84
CHAPTER 4. Translating Causative Constructions............................87
tj 1. TYPES OF CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS.............................................87
§2. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH CAUSAL VliRUS.............................................88
§ 3. CONSTRUCTIONS WIT! I II li; VERBS TO HAVE, TO GET...................89
§4. CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH NON( ЛIISAI. VERBS...........90
4
CHAPTER 5. Translating Pronouns..................................................91
§1. TRANSLATING PERSONAL PRONOUNS................................................91
§ 2. TRANSLATING POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS..............................................93
§ 3. TRANSLATING RELATIVE PRONOUNS.................................................94
§ 4. TRANSLATING THE PRONOUN ONE.....................................................95
§ 5. TRANSLATING THE PRONOUN КАЖДЫЙ / ВСЕ................................96
§ 6. TRANSLATING PARTITIVE PRONOUNS SOME / ANY........................96
§ 7. TRANSLATING DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS..................................97
CHAPTER 6. Translating The Article...............................................98
§1. TRANSLATING THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.........................................99
§ 2. TRANSLATING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE...........................................101
§ 3. TRANSLATING THE ZERO ARTICLE....................................................102
CHAPTER 7. Translating Attributive Clusters.................................103
§ 1. FEATURES OF THE ATTRIBUTIVE PHRASE.......................................103
§ 2. TRANSLATING THE ATTRIBUTIVE CLUSTER.................................., 104
CHAPTER 8. Syntactic Changes In Translation..............................106
§ 1. COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH AND
RUSSIAN SENTENCE.................................................................................106
§ 2. WORD ORDER CHANGE DUE TO THE FUNCTIONAL
SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE........................................................................108
§ 3. SENTENCE PARTITIONING AND INTEGRATION.............................109
CHAPTER 9. Difference In English And Russian Punctuation......... Ill
§ 1. PRINCIPLES OF PUNCTUATION IN ENGLISH AND
RUSSIAN.......................................................................................................1П
§ 2. DIFFERENCES IN COMMA USAGE.......................................................112
§3. USING THE DASH......................................................................................113
§ 4. USING QUOTATION MARKS..................................................................114
§ 5. USING THE COLON AND SEMICOLON................................................115
§6. USING THE ELLIPSES................................................................................115
PART IV. SEMANTIC PROBLEMS OF
TRANSLATION................................................................116
CHAPTER 1. Word Choice In Translation......................................116
§ 1. TYPES OF TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS..........................................116
§2. INTERACTION OF WORD SEMANTIC STRUCTURES........................117
§ 3. WORD CONNOTATION IN TRANSLATION........................................118
§ 4. INTRALINGUISTIC MEANING...............................................................119
§ 5. CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS.....................................................................120
CHAPTER 2. Translating Realia....................................................122
§ 1. REALIA AND EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS................................122
§ 2. TYPES OF REALIA.....................................................................................122
5§ 3. WAYS OF TRANSLATING REALIA........................................................123
§ 4. TRANSLATING PEOPLE'S NAMES.........................................................125
§ 5. TRANSLATING GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS...........................................127
§ 6. TRANSLATING PUBLISHED EDITIONS...............................................128
§ 7. TRANSLATING ERGONYMS...................................................................129
CHAPTER 3. Translating Terms....................................................129
§ 1. TRANSLATION FACTORS........................................................................129
§ 2. TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE..................................................................131
§ 3. TERMS IN FICTION AND MAGAZINES................................................133
CHAPTER 4. Translator's False Friends........,................................135
CHAPTER 5. PHRASEOLOGICAL AND
METAPHORICAL TRANSLATION...............................137
§ 1. METAPHOR AND THE PHRASEOLOGICAL UNIT.............................137
§ 2. INTERLINGUAL METAPHORIC
TRANSFORMATIONS................................................................................138
§3. WAYS OF IDIOM TRANSLATION...........................................................139
§ 4. CHALLENGES IN TRANSLATING IDIOMS..........................................141
CHAPTER 6. Metonymical Translation..........................................142
§ 1. DEFINITIONS.........".....................................................................................142
§ 2. LEXICAL METONYMIC TRANSFORMATION.....................................143
§ 3. PREDICATE TRANSLATION...................................................................144
§4. SYNTACTIC METONYMIC TRANSFORMATIONS.............................145
CHAPTER 7. Antonymic Translation.............................................146
§ 1. DEFINITION................................................................................................146
§ 2. CONVERSIVE TRANSFORMATION.......................................................146
§ 3. SHIFTING NEGATIVE MODALITY........................................................147
§ 4. REASONS FOR ANTONYMIC TRANSLATION....................................148
CHAPTER 8. Differences In Russian And English
Word Combinability....................................................................148
§ 1. REASONS FOR DIFFERENCES IN WORD
COMBINABILITY........................................................................................148
§2. TRANSLATION OF ADVERBIAL VERBS...............................................150
§ 3. TRANSLATING SYNONYM CONDENSATION....................................152
CHAPTER 9. Differences In Russian And English
Word Building.............................................................................152
§ 1. COMPOUNDS..............................................................................................153
§ 2. CONVERSION..............................................................................................154
§ 3. AFFIXATION...............................................................................................156
§4. ABBREVIATION..........................................................................................158
6
PART V. PRAGMATIC PROBLEMS OF
TRANSLATION................................................................160
CHAPTER 1. Translation Pragmatics.............................................160
§ 1. CONCEPT OF PRAGMATICS...................................................................160
§ 2. TEXT PRAGMATICS..................................................................................161
§3. AUTHOR'S COMMUNICATIVE INTENTION.......................................162
§ 4. COMMUNICATIVE EFFECT UPON THE RECEPTOR.........................165
§ 5. TRANSLATOR'S IMPACT.........................................................................168
CHAPTER 2. Speech Functions And Translation.............................169
§ 1. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH FUNCTIONS..............................................169
§ 2. INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION AND MODALITY IN
TRANSLATION............................................................................................ПО
§ 3. EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION IN TRANSLATION.......................................175
§4. PHATIC FUNCTION IN TRANSLATION...............................................178
§ 5. CONATIVE FUNCTION IN TRANSLATION..........................................181
CHAPTER 3. Functional Styles And Translation............................. 184
§ 1. FUNCTIONAL STYLE, REGISTER: DEFINITION................................184
§2. TRANSLATING SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STYLE....................184
§ 3. TRANSLATING BUREAUCRATIC STYLE............................................188
§ 4. TRANSLATING JOURNALISTIC (PUBLICISTIC) STYLE...................191
CHAPTER 4. Rendering Stylistic Devices In Translation................. 195
§ 1. TRANSLATION OF METAPHORS AND SIMILES................................195
§ 2. TRANSLATION OF EPITHETS.................................................................197
§ 3. TRANSLATION OF PERIPHRASIS..........................................................199
§ 4. TRANSLATION OF PUNS.........................................................................200
§ 5. TRANSLATION OF ALLUSIONS AND QUOTATIONS........................203
CHAPTER 5. Translation Norms And Quality
Control Of A Translation.............................................................205
§1. NORMS OF TRANSLATION.....................................................................205
§ 2. QUALITY CONTROL OF THE TRANSLATION....................................209
CHAPTER 6. Translation Etiquette.................................................211
§1. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS, ETIQUETTE, AND PROTOCOL.................211
§ 2. CODE OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT..................................................212
§ 3. PROTOCOL CEREMONIES.......................................................................214
NOTES.................................................................................................................216
APPENDIX 1..........................................................,............................................228
Russian-English Transliteration Chart.................................................................228
APPENDIX 2.......................................................................................................229
Russian-English-Chinese Transliteration Chart...................................................229
English-Russian Glossary of Terms......................................................................235
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
В настоящее время теоретические вопросы перевода привлекают внимание не только профессиональных переводчиков, лингвистов, но и всех тех, кто по роду своей деятельности вынужден общаться на английском языке с зарубежными коллегами и партнерами. Литература по сопоставлению русского и английского языков не вполне отвечает потребностям общества, во-первых, в связи с малочисленностью ее тиражирования; во-вторых, в связи с тем, что, как правило, в ней делается упор либо на чисто теоретические моменты перевода, либо на какие-то, достаточно ограниченные, аспекты переводческой деятельности и, в-третьих, в ней совсем не отражена специфика перевода с английского и русского языков как языков-посредников в странах Азиатско-Тихоокеанского региона. В данном учебнике сделана попытка отразить последние два момента.
Учебник построен в соответствии с программой по курсу "Теория перевода" и состоит из пяти частей. Часть I соответствует курсу "Введение в общую теорию перевода" и дает знакомство с общими понятиями и основной терминологией переводоведения. Часть II представляет краткий экскурс в историю перевода. Часть III раскрывает грамматические проблемы перевода с английского языка на русский и с русского на английский. В части IV излагаются семантические проблемы перевода с указанных языков, и часть V знакомит читателя с основными проблемами прагматики перевода, особенностями употребления английского и русского языков.
Данный учебник построен на материале лекций, читаемых студентам переводческого отделения ДВГУ.
Автор выражает глубокую благодарность своему языковому редактору Элизабет Стэнсиу, волонтеру Корпуса мира, а также коллегам Л.К.Бобылевой, Е.Б.Коневой, Л.А.Щеголевой, Л.В.Кульчицкой за ценные замечания к работе.
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31. Нелюбин Л.Л., Хухуни Г. Т. История и теория перевода в России. -М.: Народный учитель, 1999.
32. Попович А. Проблемы художественного перевода. - М.: Высшая школа, 1980.
33. Рецкер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1974.
34. Ривлина А.А., Андреюк И.А. Основные трудности перевода с английского языка на русский и с русского на английский. - Благовещенск: Изд-во БГПУ, 2002.
35. Топер П.М. Перевод в системе сравнительного литературоведения. - М.: Наследие, 2000.
36. Федоров А.В. Основы общей теории перевода. - М.: Высшая школа, 1983.
37. Хухуни Г. Т. Русская и западноевропейская переводческая мысль (основные тенденции развития до начала XX в.) - Тбилиси: Мец-ниереба, 1990.
38. Чайковский P.P. Поэтический перевод в зеркале мнений. - Магадан, 1997.
39. Чернов Г.В. Основы синхронного перевода. - М.: Высшая школа, 1987.
40. Черняховская Л.А. Перевод и смысловая структура. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1976.
41. Чужакин А. Мир перевода-2: Practicum. - М.: Валент, 1997.
42. Чужакин А., Палажченко П. Мир перевода, или Вечный поиск взаимопонимания. - М.: Валент, 1997.
43. Швейцер А.Д. Перевод и лингвистика. (Газетно-информационный и военно-публицистический перевод). - М.: Воениздат, 1973.
44. Швейцер АД. Теория перевода. Статус, проблемы, аспекты. - М.: Наука, 1982.
PART I. GENERAL ISSUES OF TRANSLATION CHAPTER 1. What Is Translation?
§ 1. Translation studies
The second half of the 20th century has seen the in-depth study of translation, which is sometimes called Theory of Translation, Science of Translation, Translation Linguistics, or even Translatology.
It has been claimed abroad that translation studies began in 1972 with Holmes's paper presented at the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics, "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies".1 However, unfortunately, European and American scholars seemed to have been unaware of the achievements of the Russian school of translation studies. Works by V. Komissarov, A. Shveitser, A. Fedorov and many others confirmed the status of translation studies as a discipline of its own even in the 1950s.2
The main concern of translation theory is to determine appropriate translation methods for the widest possible range of texts3 and to give insight into the translation process, into the relations between thought and language, culture and speech.
There are several aspects of this branch of linguistics:
• General theory of translation, whose object is general notions typical of translation from any language.
• Specific (or partial, in terms of Holmes) theory of translation that deals with the regularities of translation characteristic of particular languages -for example, translation from English into Russian and vice versa.
• Special (partial) theory of translation that pays attention to texts of various registers and genres.
There are two terms corresponding to the Russian word "перевод": translation and interpretation. Those who discriminate between the terms refer the term 'translation' to the written text, and the term 'interpretation' to oral speech. However, the terms are polysemantic: to interpret might mean "to render or discuss the meaning of the text" - an outstanding British translation theorist P.Newmark, for example, states that "when a part of a text is important to the writer's intention, but insufficiently determined semantically, the translator has to interpret".4 The term to translate is often referred to any (written or oral) manner of expression in another language.
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We should also differentiate the terms translating and rendering. When we translate, we express in another language not only what is conveyed in the source text but also how it is done. In rendering, we only convey the ideas (the what) of the source text.
Several approaches are used for defining translation.
§ 2. Semiotic approach
Language system is the part of semiotics dealing with sign systems. Therefore, semiotic theories may be applied to language functioning. According to the semiotic approach, translation is language code switching. When translating, we switch from one language to another one.
American linguist Roman Jakobson in his article "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation"5 spoke of three possibilities of code switching:
1) Intralinguistic translation, or rewording, i.e. interpreting verbal signs through other signs of the same language. This can be done on diachronic level: Chaucer's text is translated into modern English. When done on synchronic level, this kind of code switching is called a paraphrase. We often deal with paraphrasing when trying to explain or define things. For example, to explain the meaning of the phrase / am not much of a cook, we can paraphrase it by / do not like to cook, or / do not cook well. In the theory of translation, this type of code switching is called a transformation. Intralinguistic transfer can also be illustrated by stylistic differentiation, as is done in the following Russian text switched from the expressive publicistic register to a very formal style of the police report: Катя уже в полной горячке обрушилась на инспектора ("обвинила работников милиции в равнодушии и жестокости"). И, боясь не выдержать и расплакаться, вскочила и убежала. ( "Разъяснительную работу провести не удалось ввиду крайней недисциплинированности девочки")6.
2) Interlanguage translation, i.e. substituting verbal signs of one language by verbal signs of another language, or switching from one language code to another one. This type of code switching is translation proper, the object of Translation Studies.
3) Intersemiotic translation, i.e. substituting signs of one semiotic system by signs of a different semiotic system. In its broad meaning, the term implies transmutation and can be illustrated by decoding some ideas
and themes expressed, for example, in a poem through the "language"
of music or dance.
Other linguists adhere to the semiotic approach to translation. J. Catford, for example, defines translation as "the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)."7