3. Aspects of Lexical Meaning

In the general framework of lexical meaning several aspects can be singled out.

They are:

1. the denotational aspect;

2. the connotational aspect;

3. the pragmatic aspect.

The denotational aspect of lexical meaning is the part of lexical meaning which

establishes correlation between the name and the object, phenomenon, process or characteristic feature of concrete reality (or thought as such), which is denoted by the given word. The term “denotational” is derived from the English word to denote which means “be a sign of, indicate, stand as a name or symbol for”. For example, the denotational meaning of booklet is “a small thin book that gives information about something”. It is through the denotational aspect of meaning that bulk of information is conveyed in the process of communication. The denotational aspect of lexical meaning expresses the notional content of a word.

The connotational aspect of lexical meaning is the part of meaning which reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about. Connotation conveys additional information in the process of communication. Connotation includes:

1. the emotive charge, e.g. daddy as compared to father,

2. evaluation, which may be positive or negative, e.g. clique (a small group of people who seem unfriendly to other people) as compared to group (a set of people);

3. intensity (or expressiveness) e.g. adore as compared to love;

4. imagery, e.g. to wade – to walk with an effort (through mud, water or anything that makes progress difficult). The figurative use of the word gives rise to another meaning which is based on the same image as the first – to wade through a book.

The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning is the part of meaning that conveys

information on the situation of communication. Like the connotational aspect, the pragmatic aspect falls into four closely linked together subsections:

1. information on the “time and space” relationship of the participants;

2. information on the participants and the given language community;

3. information on the tenor of discourse. The tenors of discourse reflect how the addresser (the speaker or the writer) interacts with the addressee (the listener or the reader);

4. information on the register of communication. Three main types of the situations of communication are usually singled out: formal, neutral and informal. Practically every word in the language is register-oriented. Thus, the pragmatic aspect of meaning refers words like cordial, anticipate, aid, celestial to the formal register while units like cut it out, to be kidding, hi, stuff are to be used in the informal register.

Word-Meaning and Motivation

The process of motivation depends on the inner form of a word (cf.: in Russian внутренняя форма слова). The inner form is the pivotal point in the lexical meaning which helps to get an insight into the features chosen as the basis for information. In linguistics the term “motivation” is used to denote the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand and its meaning on the other. There are three main types of motivation:

1. phonetical motivation;

2. morphological motivation;

3. semantic motivation.

The phonetical motivation implies a direct connection between the phonetic

structure of the word and its meaning. For instance, the word cuckoo (cf. in Russian кукушка) denotes a bird whose call is like its name. Thus, there is a certain similarity between the sound-form of the word and the sounds the bird produces.

The morphological motivation implies a direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes, the pattern of their arrangement and the meaning of the word. Thus, the main criterion in morphological motivation is the relationship between morphemes. For example, the derived word to rethink is motivated through its morphological structure which suggests the idea of “thinking again”. The difference in the arrangement of the component morphemes in the words finger-ring (кольцо) and ring-finger (безымянный палец) accounts for the difference in the meaning of these words.

The semantic motivation implies a direct connection between the central and marginal meanings of the word. For example, the compound noun eyewash has two meanings: 1) a lotion for the eye (примочка для глаз); 2) something said or done to deceive a person so that he thinks what he sees is good though in fact it is not (cf. in Russian очковтирательство). The first meaning is based on the literal meanings of the components, i.e. the meanings of the morphemes eye- and –wash. Thus, motivation of the noun eyewash in its first meaning is morphological. The second meaning of the word eyewash is metaphoric or figurative. In this case the motivation is semantic. Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct and figurative meanings within the semantic structure of the word.

Causes, Nature and Results of Semantic Change

Word meaning is liable to change in the course of the historical development of language. There are distinguished causes of semantic change, nature and results of the process of change of meaning.

Causes of Semantic Change. The factors accounting for semantic changes may be roughly subdivided into groups: a) extra-linguistic; b) linguistic.

By extra-linguistic causes various changes in the life of the speech community are meant, i.e. changes in economic and social structure, changes in scientific concepts. For example, changes in the way of life of the British brought about changes in the meaning hlaford. Originally the word meant “bread-keeper” («хранитель хлеба»), and later on “master, ruler” (“повелитель, лорд”).

Some changes of meaning occur due to purely linguistic causes, i.e. factors acting within the language system. The commonest form which this influence takes is the so-called ellipsis. In a phrase made up of two words one of these is omitted and its meaning is transferred to its partner. For example, the verb to starve in Old English (OE) meant “to die” and was habitually used in collocation with the word hunger. In the 16-th century the verb to starve itself acquired the meaning “to die of hunger”.

Another linguistic cause is discrimination/differentiation of synonyms which can be illustrated by the semantic development of a number of words. In OE the word land meant both “solid part of earth’s surface” and “the territory of a nation”. In the Middle English period the word country was borrowed as its synonym. The meaning of the word land was somewhat altered and “the territory of a nation” came to be denoted by the borrowed word country.

Fixed context may be regarded as another linguistic factor in semantic change. For example, the word token, when brought into competition with loan word sign, became restricted in use to a number of set expressions, such as love token, token of respect and also became specialized in meaning.

Nature of Semantic Change. A necessary condition of any semantic change is some connection, some association between the old meaning and the new one. There are two kinds of association involved in various semantic changes:

1. similarity of meanings;

2. contiguity of meanings.

Similarity of meanings or metaphor may be described as the semantic process

of associating two referents, one of which in some way resembles the other. The word hand, for instance, acquired in the 16-th century the meaning of “a pointer of a clock or a watch” because of the similarity of one of the functions performed by the hand (“to point to smth.”) and the function of the clock-pointer (hands of the clock [watch]).

Contiguity of meanings or metonomy may be described as the semantic process of associating two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it. This can be illustrated by the use of the word tongue – “the organ of speech” in the meaning of “language” (as in mother tongue).