22. Antithesis and oxymoron.

Antithesis (from Greek anti ‘against’; thesis ‘statement’) emphasizes the notions really or presumably contrastive. The purpose of using this device is to demonstrate the contradictory nature of the referent. Three varieties of A:

Two words or expressions of the opposite meanings may be used to characterize the same object:

• “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…”

• «Я царь, - я раб, - я червь, - я бог!»

A. may be used to depict two objects with opposite characteristics:

• “His fees were high; his lessons were light.”

Two objects may be opposed as incompatible by themselves and each of them obtain a characteristic opposite to that of the other:

• “For the old struggle – mere stagnation, and in place of danger and death, the dull monotony of security and the horror of an unending decay!”

The most natural expression of contrast is the use of antonyms. But objects may be opposite from the particular point of view of the speaker or writer (ex: high fees – light lessons: the price of the lessons is high, their quality low, but if the quality is low the price ought to be low.)

A. of 2 metaphors:

“’You blessed darling’, cried Grace, now a rainbow instead of sunset.”

A. in the mouth of half-educated swindler paying homage to his companion’s philanthropic intentions:

“You have a kind nucleus at the interior of your exterior after all”

Trite antithesis: now or never, dead or alive, yes or no, the first and the last etc.

Oxymoron (Greek ‘sharp-dull’) ascribes some feature to an object incompatible with this feature.

• His honour rooted in dishonour stood

And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.

• “O brawling love! O loving hate!”

• «остро-тупой»

O. discloses the essence of the object full of discrepancies.

“I liked him better than I would like his father… We were fellow strangers.”

Отличие от антитезы.

Структурно: оксюморон всегда выражается словосочетанием, а не предложением.

Логически: оксюморон демонстрирует как бы не замечаемую отправителем речи несовместимость семантических компонентов.

23 EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF SYNTAX AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Stylistic syntax is the branch of linguistics which investigates the stylistic value of syntactic forms, stylistic functions of syntactic phenomena, their stylistic classifications as well as their appurtenance to sub-languages or styles.

Forms of sentences and word-combinations may be expressive or neurtal.

We are to take for stylistically neutral the structure of a simple sentence not possesing any particular deformities as regards the number of its constituents or their order.

Any deviation from the normal accepted structure of the sentence changes stylistic value of the utterance, making the sentence stylistically significant – expressive emotionally or belonging to some special sphere of one sub-language or another.

It’s not only syntactival forms of separate sentences (paradigmatic syntax), but the interralation of the contiguous syntactical forms as well (syntagmatic syntax).

The expressive means of syntax may be subdivided into:

1. based on absence of logically indispensable elements

• elliptical sentences

• unfinished sentences (aposiopesis)

• nominative sentences

• constructions in which auxiliary elements are missing

• asyndeton

• zeugma

2. based on the excessive use of speech elements (repetition: framing, anadiplosis, prolepsis or syntactic tautology, polysyndeton)

3. consisting in an unusual arrangement of linguistic elements (stylistic inversion)

4. based on interaction of syntactical forms (parallelism: chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora)

5. connection between parts of the sentence (detachment, parenthesis)

6. revaluation of syntactic means (quasi-affirmative, auasi-negative, quasi-imperative, quasi-interrogative sentences, rhetorical question)

the most general classification of expressive syntactic means: from the viewpoint of quantative characteristics of the syntactic structure there are only two possible varieties of deviation:

1. the absence of elements which are obligatory in a neutral construction

2. excess of non-essential elements

With dropping of some sentence elements the stylistic appurtenance of a sentence changes into stylistically significant.

Additional words and more complicated constructions aim at emphasizing the thought expressed.

24 ELLIPSIS. NOMINATIVE SENTENCES. APOSIOPESIS.

Elliptical are those sentences in which one or both principle parrts (subject and predicate) are felt as missing, since theoretically they could be restored.

They’re typical of oral communication, especially colloquial speech. But there they’re not stylistically marked. In other spheres allipsis is used for a certain stylistic aim.

The missing elements are supplied by the context (lingual or extra-lingual). They’re either present in the context or they’re implied by the situation.

They impact a certain tinge of familiarity; a certain emotional tension to the narration. In personative discourse they’re used to make speech more natural, they render informal character to speech. The brevity (краткость) of the sentences and abruptness of their intonation impart a certain tinge of sharpness to them.

Sometimes the omission of subjects contribute to the acceleration of the tempo to speech.

They’re often used in dictionaries, reference books (справочники), diaries, telegrams for the sake of business-like brevity. In oral speech and fiction using of ellipsis aims at economy and expressiveness.

In contemporary prose ellipsis is mainly used in dialogue where it is conciously employed by the author to reflect the natural omittions characterising oral colloquial speech.

• What are you doing? – nothing.

• He bacame one of the prominent men of the House. spoke clean and modesty, and was never too long…

• - I don’t want my husband to know that I’m – I’m… - Affiliated to art?

• ALICE: “Where’s the man I’m going to marry?” GENERVA: “Out in the garden” ALICE: “What’s he doing out here?” GENERVA: “Annoying Father” – the first answer ai a potential adverbial modifier of place used independently; the second – part of the simple predicate plus direct object.

• “Were they interesting books?” – “Don’t know. Havent read them. Looked pretty hopeless.” – pronouns are omitted.

• “Will you and Jonnie come in and have drinks with us this evening, Maurenn?” – “Love to.” – the subject and the modal verb of a complex preficate “I should” are missed.

• “Stop it, Earne”, sha said. – “Sha’nt” (неа), said Ernie and continued. – the only part present is the auxiliary verb in the negative form

• “Perhaps, perhaps not” – compound expressive alternative.

• “Trying for date and site London versus Patterson will inform you have patience” – a text of a telegram. Participal predicates replaced verbal ones.

• “Just arrived. elethant passed through half an hour ago, creating wildes fight and excitement. Elephant tanged arounf streets; two plumbers going by killed one – other escaped. Regret general. Detective.” – the text of a telegram. Articles are missed. “regret general” = “There is a general regret”.

• “Why unnews query” – “unnews good news” – “unnews unjob” – the absolutely specific feature of the sublanguage of telegrames is the unusually extensive use of prefix un- .

• Mesaage in drivers’ direction: “Slow” (instead of “Please drive slowly”)

• His forehead was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all on one side.

• “The wives, how are the wives?” – “The wives? Lead.” – “And the sun?” – “Zero”.

• "Some people go to priests; others to poetry; I to my friends."(Virginia Woolf)

• "True stories deal with hunger, imaginary ones with love."

ABSENCE OF AUXILIARY ELEMENTS

Auxiliary words “have, do, be, will” as well as the link verb “be” are very often dropped in informal oral communication.

A sentence comprising both subject and predicate (either complete or in part) is not elliptical: we might call a sentence with the subject and a nominal, a participal, or an infinitival part of the predicate morphologically incomplete, but not elliptical, as it has its both principal parts.

NOMINATIVE SENTENCES

Predicate is omitted in nominative sentences. Omitted member is difficult to restore.

Nom.sent-s are used in descriptive purpose; to impact dynamic force.

FUNCTION: to attract the reader’s attention to a certain idea; stating the existence of a thing.

• London. Fog everywhere. Implacable November Weather.

• Dusk – of a summer night.

• “But of they should! If they should guess! The horror! The flight! The exposure! The police!...” (Dreiser) – a succession of nom sent-s reflects the state of mind of the hero and invigorates the dynamic force of narration.

Nominative sentences are widely used in stage directions (especially in initial, opening remarks, serving the same purpose as expositions in novels or stories).

• Lady Sneerwell’s dressing-room. Lady Sneerwell discovered at her toilet; Snake drinking chocolate.

• In manner, close and dirty. In voice, husky and low. In face, watchful behind a blind.

• Malay Camp. A row of streets crossing another row of streets. Mostly narrow streets. Mostly dirty streets. Mostly dart streets.

• Ever since he was a young man, the hard life on Earth, the panic of 2130. the starvation, cheos, panic riot, want. Then bucking throuh the planets, the womanless, loveless years, the alone years.

UNFINISHED SENTENCES (APOSIOPESIS)

Means “silence”. The speaker doesn’t bring the utterance to the end. Deliberate abstraction from bringing the sentence to the end, you don’t want it = you do it deliberately. Don’t confuse the aposiopesis with cases when speaker is overwhelmed with emotion.

Aposiopesis confines the speaker’s mode of expression to a mere allusion, a mere hint at what remains unsaid.

An utterance unfinished due to external reasons (state of agitation, sudden change of curcamstances) is not a stylistic device, as in the following case:

• My God! If the police come – find me here – (He dashes to the door. Then stops).

To mark the break dashes and dots are used. It’s only in cast-iron structures that full stops may also appear, as in the well-known phrases:

• It depends, you know.

• Good intentions, but.

Aposiopesis may be illustrated by such ready-made incomplete sentences as :

• Of all the…

• Well, I never!

Both can have the same implication: such impudence (наглость) is unexpected)

A special variety of unfinished sent-s are represented by conditional clauses used independently:

• If they only knew that!

Examples of aposiopesis:

• Well, I must say that’s a wonderful way of wasting tax-payers ‘money’, - Aitken growled. – Of all the damned nonsense I’ve run into…”

• You herd what the guy said: get out or else.

• “This story really doesn’t get anywhere at all. The rest of it comes later – sometimes when Piggy asks Dulcie to dine with hin, and she’s feeling lonelier than usual, and general Kitchener happens to be looking the other way; and than –“ (O.Henry) – the author invites the reader to get vent to his own imagination.

• This a story how a Beggins had an adventure. He may have lost the neigbour’s respect, but he gained – well, you will see whether he gained anything in the end.

• “people liked to be with her. And –“ she paused again. “- and she was crazy about you”

• What I had seen of Patti didn’t really contradict Kitty’s view of her: a girl who means well, but.”

• He was shouting out that he’d come back, that his mother had better have the money ready for him. Or else! That is what he said: “Or else! It was a threat.”

• “I just work here’, he said softly. ‘If I didn’t-“ he let the rest hang in the air, and kept on smiling.

• I told her, “you’ve always acted the free woman, you’ve never let any thing stop you from…” (he checks himself, goes on hurriedly). “that made her sore.”

• “well, they’ll get a chance now to show –“ (Hastily): “I don’t mean – But let’s forget that.”

• And it was unlikely that anyone would trouble to look there-until-until-well.

• "And there’s Bernie layin’

On the couch, drinkin’ a beer

And chewin’--no, not chewin’--poppin’.

So I said to him,

I said, 'Bernie, you pop that

Gum one more time . . .'

And he did.

So I took the shotgun off the wall

And I fired two warning shots . . .

Into his head."

("Cell Block Tango," from Chicago, 2002)

• Go down to Lord and Taylors or someplace and get yourself something real nice to impress the boy invited you.

In apokoinu constructions the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective creates a blend of the main and the subordinate clauses so that the predicative or the object of the first one is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one.

• There was a door led into the kitchen.

• He was the man killed the deer.

The double syntactical function played by one word produces the general impression of clumsiness of speech and is used as a means of speech characteristics in dialogue, in reported speech and the type og narrative known as “entrusted” in which the author entrusts the telling of the story to an imaginary narrator who is either an obsever or participant of the discribed events.

• There was no breeze came through the door.

• I never met so many people didn’t own a watch.

• There was a whisper in my family that it was love drove him out and love of the wife he married.

25 ASYNDETON AND POLYSYNDETON

The arrangement of sentence members, the completeness of sentence structure involve various types of connection used within the sentence or between them.

Asyndeton means “absence of conjunctions.” – deliberate omission of conjunctions. Asyndeton connection of sentences and parts of sentences is based on the lexical meaning of the unites combined.

The stylistic function: brevity, acceleration of the tempo, colloquial character. It imparts dynamic forse to the text.

• He notices a slight stane on the window-side rug. He cannot change it with the other rug, the are a different size”

• Students would have no need to “walk the hospitals” if they had me. I was a hospytal in myself.”

In colloquial speech the most frequent are conditional and temporal asyndetic adverbial clauses:

• You want anything, you pay for it.

• You get older, you want to feel that you accomplish something.

Attributive and object clauses in English are very often joined to the principle clause asyndetically:

• He said he had seen it before.

• The man he met yesterday was an old friend of him.

Such sentences are not regurded as colloquial, but yet there is something informal about them. In a formal text sentences with conjunctions would be preferable.

• "He was a bag of bones, a floppy doll, a broken stick, a maniac."

(Jack Kerouac, On the Road)

POLYSYNDETON - Repeated use of conjunctions.

Ocasionally it may creat a general impression of solemnity, due to certain association woth the style of the Bible.

• And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew and beat upon the house; and it fell; and great was the fall of it”

The conjunction “and” is the most frequent.

In poetry and fiction the repetition of “and” either underlines the sumalteniety of actions, or close connection of properties enumerated.

• It (the tent) is soaked and heavy, and it flogs about, and tumbles down on you, and clings round your head, and makes you mad”.

On the other hand the conjunction “and” is extremely often used in colloquial speech, where it is not a stylistic device but mere pleonasm caused by the poverty of the speaker’s vocabulary:

• I always been a good girl; and I never offered to say a word to him; and I don’t owe him nothing; and I don’t care; and I won’t be put upon; and I have my feelings the same as anyone else”

It may also create an atmosphere of monotony.

Other examples of polysyndeton:

• "Oh, my piglets, we are the origins of war--not history's forces, nor the times, nor justice, nor the lack of it, nor causes, nor religions, nor ideas, nor kinds of government--not any other thing. We are the killers."

• "Standing still, I can hear my footsteps

Come up behind me and go on

Ahead of me and come up behind me and

With different keys clinking in the pockets,

And still I do not move."

(W.S. Merwin, "Sire." The Second Four Books of Poems. Copper Canyon Press, 1993)

Both, polysendeton and asyndeton, have a strong rhyttmic impact. Besides, the function of polysendeton is to strengthen the idea of equal logical (emotive) importance of connecting sentences, while asyndeton, cutting off connecting words, helps to create the effect of terse (cжатый, краткий), energetic, active prose.

These two types of connection are more characteristics of the author’s speech.

The third type – attachment (gap-sentence link, annexation) on the contrary, is mainle to be found in reported speech, intrustive narrative, in representations of the voice of the personage-dialogue. The second part of the utterance is separated from the first one by a full stop though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong. The second part appears as an after-thought and is often connected with the beginning with the help of the conjunction .

• “It wasn’t his fault. It was yours. And mine…”

26.SYNTACTIC TAUTOLOGY [tɔː'tɔləʤɪ]

PROLEPIS, or syntactic tautology is repetition of the noun subject in in the form of a personal pronoun.

The stylistic puprose – to emphasize the subject, make it more conspicuous = topicalization (communicative emphasis) of the ‘theme’.

The noun subject separated from the rest of the sentence by the unsressed pronominal subject comes to be detached from the sentence – made more prominent, more ‘rheme-like’:

• Miss Tillie Webster, she slept forty days and nights without walking up”

Prolepsis is especislly typical of popular speech = uncultivated speech (speech of uneducated people):

• Bolivar, he’s plenty tired, and he can’t carry double.

Prolepsis is often met with in nursery rhymes and in folk ballads (or their imitations):

• Jack Sprat’s pig,

He was not very little,

He was not very big…

Little Miss Muffet

She sat on a tuffet…

A phenomenon, grammatically opposite to prolepsis, but often confused with it, is the anticipatory use of personal pronouns. The stylistic function of anticipatory constructions is emphasis of the ‘rheme’: ots semantic weight, its informative force is thus enhanced:

• Oh, it’s a fine life, the life of the gutter.

• She has developed power, this woman – this – wife of his! (Galsworthy)

Tautology in appended sentences:

‘appended statement’ – repetition of the sentence in a very general manner. To be more exact, what is additionally said is not the preceding sentence, but only the abstract scheme of it.

An appendent statement consists of two elements: the pronominal subject and an auxiliary or modal verb representing the predicate of the main sentence.

Appended sentences are always intensifiers, just as any other kind of repetition:

• I’m a good girl, I am.

• I washed my hands and face afore I come, I did… I know what the like of you are, I do.

• ‘You’ve made the nice mess, you have… you’d get a scaffolding pole entangled, you would…’

Some grammarians consider them as a typical feature of ‘popular speech’, but they’re more like signs of unrestrained emotion. We can class them under colloquial speech.

Emphasizing of the rheme of the utterance – turning a simple sentence into a complex one.

The part of the simple sentence to be emthasized (ots subject, object or adverbial modifier) is made the predicative of the principle clause (the pronoun it is followed by the link-verb), the rest of the simple sentence is made an appostive subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction that:

• We met him on Friday. => It was on Friday that we met him.

• It was she who made me cry.

27. SIMPLE REPETITION. PARALLELISM.

Paradigmatic syntax deals with lexical repetition.

REPETITION is purely syntactical whenever what is repeated is not a word, but an abstract syntactical position only. This is observed in any sentence comprising two or more homogeneous parts:

• Men, women, children were running.

• Compare: people were running.

The idea of totality of flight is expressed in the first more emphatically.

If the homogeneous parts are synonyms, we observe ‘synonimic repetition’:

• Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish dear fellow. – intensification.

Repetition is an expressive stylistic mean widely used in all varieties of emotional speech – in poetry and rhetoric, imaginative prose, everyday intercourse, collooquial speech. On the contrary, such repetition hardly occurs in scientific, technological or legal texts: official documents.

Repetition within phrases tylical of coll.speech concerns mostly qualifiyng words, adverbs and adjectives:

• Very, very good

• For ever and ever

• A little, little girl

• They both looked hard, tough and ruthless, and they both looked very, very lethal.

• Yeah, uh, you’ve been busy busy busy, aren’t you?

• Oh, the dreary, dreary moorland!

Oh, the barren, barren shore!

• Gold! Gold! Gold!

Bright and yellow, hard and cold,

Molten, graven, hammer’d and roll’d,

Heavy to get and light to hold. – “gold” being repeated four times proclaims the all-penetrating power of gold.

• Scrooge went to bed again, and thought and thought it over and over and over. – the repetition emthatically underlines intensity and duration of the process: he thought laboriously; he was plunged into intensive and continious thinking.

The element repeated attracts the reader’s attention as being the most important; in a way it imparts additional sense to the whole of the utterance.

Two kinds of repetition: framing and anadiplosis. But it’s syntagmatic syntax that deals with them.

PARALLELISM (syntagmatic syntax)

Repetition may concern sentenses’ syntactic structure as well. Assimilation or even identitiy of two or more neighbouring sentences is called parallelism (parallel constructions).

As a matter of fact, parallelism is a variety of repetition, but not a repetition of lexically identical sentences, only a repetition of syntactic constructions:

• John kept silent, Marry was reading. – purely syntactical repetition = parallelism.

• “The cook is crowing,

The stream is flowing,

The small birds switter,

The lake doth glitter.”

Much more often it happens that parallel sentences contain the same lexical elements. In this case we deal with lexico-syntactical repetitions. In these, the lexical identity of certain parts of neighbouring sentences is not an optional occurrence (as in the case with parallelism), but quite obligatory. Among them we can discern the following lexico-syntactical devices: anaphora, epyphora, symploca, anadiplosis, chiasmus.

• Farewell to the forests and wild-hangigng woods,

Farewell to the torrents and loud-pouring floods…” – anaphora

28. DETACHMENT. PARENTHESIS.

There are two polar types of syntactic connection in the sentence:

1. The communicative type: the subject-predicate (or the theme-rheme) relation serves to convey a piece of information

2. The nominative type: secondary relations, i.e. relations between secondary parts of a centence, make (together with their head-words) mere word-combinations, i.e. composite denominations, functionally equivalent to simple words. – the purpose of naming. Connections of the second type resemble one another: that of an attribute to its head-word, of an object or an adverbial modifier to its predicate verb.

3. between two polar types there exists intermediate type – a semi-predicative connection which occurs when a secondary part becomes “detached”.

Detachment means that a secondary member:

1. becomes phonetically separated

2. obtains emphatic stress

3. changes its habitual position (not necessary).

This secondary part remaining what it has been (an attribute etc.), at the same time assumes a function of an additional predicative; it comes to resemble the predicate. The speaker makes a hort pause before (and often after) the detached segment and lays special stress on it. As a result, the word (phrase) appears to be apposed to the rest of the sentence. Hence, the detached part is underlined as smth specially important. Form the view point of communicative syntax, ot acquires a ‘rheme-like’ status – it becomes ‘semi-communicative’, not just nominative.

Detachment makes the word prominent => emphasis.

Theoretically any secondary part of the sentence can be detached.

• Smither should choose it for her at the stores – nice and dappled. – attribute

• Very small and child-like, he never looked more than fourteen. – attribute.

• Talent, Mr.Micaber has, capital, Mr.Micaber has not. – direct object.

• And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor shall be lifted – nevermore! – adv.modifier

• It was indeed, to Forsyte’s eyes, an odd house – prepositional object

• Brave boy, he saved my life and shall not regret it – appositive.

Detached parts are separated from the rest by punctuation marks (mostly by commas and dashes).

The general stylistic effect is strengthening, emphasizing the word (or phrase).

Detachment imparts additional syntactical meaning to the word.

• How could John, with his heart of gold, leave his family? – a detached phrase can be qualified as an adverbial modifier of concession.

PARENTHETIC ELEMENTS (WORDS, PHRASES AND SENTENCES) –

Disconnected grammatically with their syntactical surroundings. They either express modality of what is predicated or imply additional information.

Parenthetic elements comprising additional information seem to be a kind of protest against the linear character of the text: the language user interrupts himself trying to say to things at once.

Words, phrases and sentences of modal meaning may be divided into two classes:

1. expressing certainty : they don’t add anything to what is meant without them, except showing the speaker’s attempt to make himself believe what he says:

   • John will surely come tomorrow

   • John will certainly come tomorrow

   • John will come tomorrow, I’m sure

2. implying different degree of probability: they turn a positive statement into mere supposition: may be, perhaps, probably, presumably, I suppose, I guess etc.

paranthesis may perform the following stylistic functions:

1. to reproduce two parallel lines of thought, two different planes of narration (in the author’s speech):

   • “…he was struck by the thought (what evil’s whisper? – what evil hint of an evil spirit?) – supposing that he and Roberta – no, say he and Sondra – (no, Sondra could swim so well and so could he) – he and Roberta were in a small boat somewhere.

2. to make the sentence or clause more conspicuous, more emphatic:

   • “The main entrance (he had never ventured to look beyond that) was a splendiferous combination of a glass and iron awning…”

3. to strengthen the emotional force by making part of the utterance interrogative or exclamatory:

   • “Here is a long passage – what an enormous prospective I make of it! – leading from Peggoty’s kitchen to the front door”

4. to avoid monotonous repetition of similar constructions

5. to impart coll.character to the author’s narration

29. RE-VALUATION OF SYNTACTIC MEANING

= revaluation of syntactical categories means the use of certain syntactic categories or forms of their expression with their meaning transferred.

In other words, grammatical forms (in our case syntactical) are sometimes used not in their original sphere – they perform a function which is not their originally.

In various circumstances affirmative, negative, interrogative, and imperative sentences may replace one another fulfilling the same communicative intention.

So, we can analyse the interrelations of such concepts characterising the sentence as affirmation (утверждение), negation (отрицание), interrogation, exhortation (order or request).

F.e., several kinds of sentence patterns may express negation although they don’t contain any grammatical devices of negation (the negative particle or nrgative pronoun).

Rhetorical question – an affirmative or negative statement which only assumes the form of a question. Expressive function: it implies direct appelation to the hearer’s opinion. The speaker never doubts what kind of answer to his question can be expected, and the conclusion is left with the hearer:

• If this belief from heaven be sent,

If such be Nature’s holy plan,

Have I not reason to lament

What man has done of man?

Quasi-affirmative sentences (affirmation) – a certain variety of rhetorical question with a negative predicate. The implication of such a negative question is an affirmative statement:

• Isn’t that too bad? = that is too bad.

• Don’t I remember? = I do remember.

• Don’t you see?

Quasi – negative sentences (negation) – rhetorical questions with affirmative predicates. Negative implication:

• Did I say a word about the money? = I didn’t say…

• What’s the good of a man behind a bit of glass? … what use is he there and what’s the good of their banks?

- Affective negation is also expressed in coll.speech by a clause of unreal comparison beginning with “as if” and containing a predicate in affirmative form:

• As if I ever stop thinking about the girl and her confounded vowels and consonants. O’m worn out thinking about her, and wathing her lips, and her teeth and her tongue…”

• As if you didn’t know.

• Стану я пса кормить!

- A very effective way of expressing negation is ironical repetition of the interlocutor’s (собеседник) [ˌɪntə'lɔkjətə] utterance:

• LADY BRITTOMART (pouting – с недовольной гримасой): Then go away.

• UNDERSHAFT (deprecatory – неодобряюще, осуждающе): Go away!

• LADY BRITTOMART: Yes, go away.

- Quasi-negative are also certain set expressions (= черт меня побери, черты с два и т.п.):

• Well, dash me if I do!

• Dash it (all)!

• What the deuce is going on?

• The deuce you have!

• go to hell!

• Innocent, like hell!

• You take us for dirt under your feet, don’t you? Catch you taking liberties with a gentleman!

Quasi –imperative sentences (exhortation) – express inducement (order or request) without the imperative form of the verb. Some of them don’t name the required action, but only mention the object or a qualification of a self-evident action:

• Tea. For two. Out here.

• Here! Quick!

• Off with you! – sometimes the adverb replaces the verb.

Quasi-interrogative sentences (interrogation) – are either imperative or declarative. Instead of asking one may iether command or explain:

• How old you are? Where were you born? => fill in your age and birthplace. – command.

• Here you are to write down your age and birthplace. – explanation.

• What is your name? => will you part your name here?

30. SYNTAGMATIC SYNTAX

Paradigmatic syntax deals with the structure of the sentence, the number and position of its constituents, compared with other choices.

Syntagmatic syntax deals mainly with a chain of sentences, the sequence of sentences constituting the text.

Certain regular alternations (чередование) and reiterations (повторение) are conspicuous and stylistically relevant. If sentences in sequence show no regular alternation of forms it’s stylistically neutral.

F.e., regular alternation of interrogative and declarative sentences characterizes the text as a dialogue (if questions and answers belong to different speakers) or as an inner monologue(if there is one speaker).

Regular interchange or repitition may not only concern communicative types of sentences, but their syntactic structure as well. Adjacent [ə'ʤeɪs(ə)nt] (cоседние) sentences are often identical or analogous by their syntactical (or morpho-syntactical) structure. Assimilation or even identitiy of two or more neighbouring sentences is called parallelism (parallel constructions).

As a matter of fact, parallelism is a variety of repetition, but not a repetition of lexically identical sentences, only a repetition of syntactic constructions:

• John kept silent, Marry was reading. – purely syntactical repetition = parallelism.

• “The cook is crowing,

The stream is flowing,

The small birds switter,

The lake doth glitter.”

Purely syntactical repetition which we have classed parallelism should be distinguished from lexico-syntactical repetitions. Much more often it happens that parallel sentences contain the same lexical elements. In this case we deal with lexico-syntactical repetitions. In these, the lexical identity of certain parts of neighbouring sentences is not an optional occurrence (as in the case with parallelism), but quite obligatory. Among them we can discern the following lexico-syntactical devices: anaphora, epiphora, framing, symploca, anadiplosis, chiasmus.

Anaphora – the use of identical words at the beginning of two or more contiguous sentences or verse lines. Sometimes it’s combined with parallelism:

• Farewell to the forests and wild-hangigng woods,

Farewell to the torrents and loud-pouring floods…”

The expressive purpose of anaphora is:

1. to imprint (зафиксировать) the elements emphasized by repetition in the reader’s memory,

2. to impact a peculiar kind of rhytm the speech

3. to increase the sound harmony

4. strengthening the element that recurs

   • my heart’s in the Highlands, my heart is not here,

My heart is in the Highlands, a-chasing the deer…

Anaphoric function may be fulfilled by whole sentences, paragraphs or even greater units. F.e.:

The very beginning of “An American Tragedy”: “Dusk – of a summer night… - And the tall walls of a commercial heart of…”- which coincides with the first lines of the epilogue.

=> anaphora is identity of the inintial parts of two or more autonomous syntactical segments, adjacent or at a distance in the text, yet obviously connected semantically.

Epithora – recurrence of identical elements in the end of two or more contiguous utterances:

• Now this gentleman had a younger brother of still better appearance than himself, who had tried life as a cornet of dragoons, and found it a bore; and had afterwards tried it in the train of an English minister abroad, and found it a bore.

Epiphora contributes to rhythmical regularity of speech, maling prose resemble poetry.

It may be combined with anaphora and parallelism:

• If he wishes to float into fairland, he reads a book; if he wishes to dash into the thick of a battle, he reads a book; if he wishes to soar into heaven, he reads a book.

Framing – a particular kind of repetition in which the two repeated elements occupy the two most prominent positions – the initial and the final.

• Never wonder. By means od addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, settle everything somehow, and never wonder.

• Money is what he’s after, money!

• Those kids were getting it all right, with busted heads nad bleeding faces – those kids were getting it.

Appended statement (the repetition of the pronominal subject and of the auxiliary part of the predicate) is also referred to framing:

• You’ve made a nice mess, you have…”

Anadiplosis – the final element (elements) of a sentence (parafraph, stanza – строфа) recur at the very beginning of the next sentence. The concluding part of the preceeding syntactic unot serves as the starting point of the next:

• With Bewick on my knee, I was then happy; happy at least in my own way.

• Three fishers went sailing out into the West,

Out into the West, as the sun went down.

• I hardly fear its terrible shape,

It seems so like my own –

It seems so like my own,

Because of the feasts I keep…

chiasmus [kaɪ'æzməs] (инверсия во второй половине фразы)– a reproduction in the given sentence of the general syntactical structure as well as of the lexical elements of the preceeding sentence, the syntactical position of the lexical elements undergoing inversion.

• The jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail…

• He rose up and down sat she.

• I love my love and my love loves me.

Certain puns are based on chiasmus:

• Soldiers face powder, girls powder faces.

• A handsome man kisses misses, an ugly one misses kisses.

Симпло́ка (от др.-греч. ςιμπλοκε — сплетение) — стилистическая фигура повторения слов в смежных стихах или фразах. Как правило, определяется как сочетание эпифоры и анафоры, то есть повторение начала и конца с вариацией середины[1], например, «Во поле берёза стояла / Во поле кудрявая стояла»;

или середины при разных начале и конце ("И я сижу, печали полный, Один сижу на берегу"). Часто совпадает с параллелизмом.

31.CNANGE OF WORD-ORDER – INVERSION

The english sentense is said to be built according to rigid patterns of word order. It means that any deviation from usual order which permissible is very effective stylistically. – stylistic inversion.

it’s important to distinguish between ‘grammatical inversion’ and ‘stylistic inversion’:

Grammatical inversion is that which brings about a cardinal change a cardinal change of the grammatical meaning in the syntactical structure. So, whenever we change the word-order to transform a declarative sentence into interrogative one, the result is grammatical inversion:

• You are here => are you here?

Stylistic inversion doesn’t change the grammatical type of the sentence.

Stylistic inversion is placing a part of the sentence into a position unusual for it in for the purpose of emphasis.

This device is often used in poetry.

The initial positian of a word or a word-group which don’t usually occupy this position makes them prominent and emphatic. The initial position may be occupied by various members: predicative, verbal predicate, adverbial modifier, direct object, prepositional object. other kinds of inversion produce similar stylistic effect.

• They slid down => Down they slid.

• Down came the storm, and smote again

The vessel in its strenth…

• In she plunged boldly,

No matter how coldly

The rough river ran…

• Inexplicable was the astonishment of the little party when they returned to find out that Mr.Pickwick disappeared. ( predicative)

• Dull would he be of soul who could pass by

A signt so touching in its majesty…(predicative)

• Came a day when he dragged himself into the Enquirer alley, and there was no Cheese-Face

• Came frightful days of snow and rain. (verbal predicate)

An adverbial modifier or the direct object can come to the foreground to perform an expressive meaning (in the author’s speech) or a natural outcome of the speaker’s desire to mention the circumstances first, and to explain what he meant afterwards (or in colloquial utterances):

• And diggedly (упрямо) along by the railings of the Grand Park towards his father’s house, he went trying to tread on his shadow… (adv.modifier – expressive function)

• Over by St.Paul he stands and there is no money in it… (adv.mod.)

• But Johnsie he smote, and she lay, scarcely moving in her painted iron bedstead. (direct object; author’s speech)

• Yes, sir, that you can. (direct object, coll.speech)

In poetry there is a tendency to place an adjectival attribute after the modified word:

• he had moccasins enchanted,

magic moccasins of deer-skin…

• have yo souls in heaven too

double-lived in regions new?

• nothing in the world is single;

all things by a law divine…

All sorts if inversion can be found in colloquial speech. Here is not so much a stylistic device as the result of spontaneity of speech. The speaker has no time for constructing a regular neutral sentence.

The initial position in a coll.speech is often occupied by the rheme, or the core of the rheme:

• rolling in money, the Carpetners were.

• A piece of sheer bad luck that was.

• Very true those words are , sir.

• Been an a athlete all this life, he had.

In oral speech (not only in careless coll.speech) is often used the structure with a rhematic noun or adjective in the initial position followed by a thematic noun (or pronoun):

• Marvellous beast, fox!

• Quite a sporty, fair and forty, that.

• First-rate head, Elderson.

• A master touch that, I thought.

Inverted word-order and unxpected changes are characteristic features of popular speech:

• ‘Very unpleasant it’s been’ – she went on. ‘Having poor auntie murdered and the police and all that…’

• ‘Said from the start I have that he didn’t do it. A regular nice young gentleman. A lot of chuckle-heads the police are, and so I’ve said before now. Some thieving tramp is a great deal more likely. Now, don’t be fret, my dear, it’ll all come right, you see if it don’t’

- in these two extracts the reader feels the intellectual deficiency or at least a very primitive mentality.