Источники дефиниций

Ахманова, О.С. Словарь лингвистических терминов / О.С. Ахманова. – 2-е изд., стер. – М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2004. – 576 с.

Баранов, А.Н. Англо-русский словарь по лингвистике и семиотике / А.Н. Баранов [и др.]; под ред. А.Н. Баранова, Д.О. Добровольского. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Азбуковник, 2001. – 640 с.

Бочкарев, А.Е. Семантический словарь / А.Е. Бочкарев. – Н. Новгород: ДЕКОМ, 2003. – 200 с.

Марузо, Ж. Словарь лингвистических терминов / Ж. Марузо; под ред. А.А. Реформатского. – М.: Изд-во иностр. лит., 1960. – 436 с.

Языкознание: Большой энциклопедический словарь / редкол.: В.Н. Ярцева (гл. ред.) [и др.]. – 2-е изд. – М.: Большая Рос. энцикл., 1998. – 685 с.

Keys to Questions and Tasks

Topic 1

1. Non-lexical units: [t], [a:], They talked for a while as darkness fell on the forest, [au]. Lexical units: pen-man-ship, take up the glove, feather, -ion, cloud, -ment, Dark Continent, (there are) no flies on him.

4. moolah n (sl.) ‘money’ – borrowing, movie ‘moving picture’ – word formation, schnapps – borrowing, loo – word formation, sound-film – word formation, spik ‘Spanish American, esp. Mexican’ – imitation, Planck (Planck’s constant) ‘fundamental constant proportionality between energy and frequency of quota of electromagnetic radiation’ – semantic derivation, powercrat – word formation.

5. foot, request, thick ‘of great or specified depth (between opposite surface)’ – primary nomination; football, moonlight, race ‘class of persons, etc. with some common feature’, broad ‘stupid, dull (of voice), muffled, indistinct’, through thick and thin – secondary nomination.

6. whisper ‘speak without vibration of vocal chords’, twitter ‘utter light tremulous sounds’, hiccup ‘make involuntary spasms of respiratory organs…’ – imitation, phonetic motivation.

glass ‘glass utensils ornaments, windows, green house(s); glass vessel esp. for drinking’, horn ‘thing made of horn; drinking vessel, powder-flask, made of horn’, the Kremlin ‘the Russian Government’ – semantic derivation, semantic motivation

happiness ‘state of being happy’, recording ‘process of recording, sound, etc. for later reproduction’, Labour Day ‘celebrated in honour of workers, esp. 1 May or first Monday in September’ – word formation, morphological motivation.

hidalgo ‘Spanish gentleman’, Kremlin ‘citadel within Russian town, esp. that of Moscow’ – borrowing, no motivation.

Topic 2

1. Atmosphere (Gk), company (F), door (OE), fashion (F), horse (OE), hundred (OE), husband (Scand), kilt (Scand), parliament (F), pneumonia (Gk), physician (L), summer (OE), street (OE/L), salmon (F).

2. Arabic: caravan, giraffe, harem, mosque; Chinese: ketchup, tea; Dutch/Flemish: boom, cruise, sketch, yacht; German: delicatessen, frankfurter, hamburger, noodle, quartz, sauerkraut; Italian: motto, prima donna, studio, violin; Japanese: geisha, judo, tsunami; Russian: glasnost, icon, perestroika, tsar/czar; Spanish: barricade, cannibal, guitar, tornado.

3. Borrowings proper, international words: history, karaoke, mafia, manager, tragedy; semantic borrowings: babushka, bureau, cargo; translation loans: homesickness (G Heimweh), superman (G Übermensch); neologisms: hyper ‘excited or nervous about sth’.

5. The words listed below are called ‘translator’s false friends’ because their semantic structures do not fully coincide which causes confusion in meaning and mistakes in translation. Cf.:

a) active ‘активный, деятельный, энергичный’ – актив ‘credit, achievement’;

b) actual ‘подлинный, действительный’ – актуальный ‘important, pressing, relevant’;

c) accurate ‘точный, правильный’ – аккуратный ‘neat’;

d) angina ‘грудная жаба’ – ангина ‘quinsy, tonsillitis’;

e) invalid ‘недействительный, непригодный’ – инвалид ‘disabled, challenged’;

f) receipt ‘квитанция, получение’ – рецепт ‘prescription’;

g) solid ‘твердый, прочный’ – солидный ‘reliable, experienced, trustworthy person’.

Topic 3.1

7. The following word forms can be classified into sets and subsets on the following grounds:

1. telephones, desks, paintings, curtains, men, books, students – common grammatical meaning of the noun (plurality);

asked, reflected, smiled, smoked, told, wished, brought – common grammatical meaning of the verb (past tense);

happiest, bravest, best, most interesting – common grammatical meaning of the adjective (superlative degree);

2. smell, scent, odour, aroma – common categorical component of lexical meanings (quality that makes a thing perceptible to the olfactory sense);

intelligent, clever, alert, quick-witted, bright, smart, brainy, sharp, shrewd, canny – common categorical component of lexical meanings (intellectual properties);

goal, jail, clink, trunk, jug, can, cooler – common denotational component of lexical meanings;

head, nob, nut, bean, upper storey, belfry, crumpet – common denotational component of lexical meanings.

8. Writer – human, write books, plays, etc.;

student – human, study at a college, polytechnic, university;

water – substance, liquid, colourless, without smell, drinkable;

salt – substance, white, obtained from mines, present in sea-water, used to flavour and preserve food;

cow – non-human (animal), of the ox family, female, adult, produces milk;

bull – non-human (animal), of the ox family, male, adult, uncastrated;

mare – non-human (animal), female, adult, horse or donkey;

stallion – non-human (animal), male, adult, horse, uncastrated, esp. used for breeding.

9. Bird – feathered creature, with two legs, two wings, usu. able to fly;

heron – long-legged waterbird, living in marshy places;

sparrow – small brownish-grey bird common in many parts of the world;

swallow – small, swift-flying, insect-eating bird with a forked tail, which migrates to warm countries.

Topic 3.2

2. Charge – 1) accusation; statement that a person has done wrong, esp. that he has broken a law; 2) sudden and violent attack at high speed (by soldiers, wild animals, a football player, etc.); 3) price asked for goods or services; 4) amount of powder, etc. (to be used) in a gun or for causing an explosion; amount of electricity (to be) put into an accumulator, contained in a substance, etc.; 5) work given to sb as a duty; thing or person given or entrusted to sb to be taken care of; responsibility; trust; 6) directions; instructions; 7) charge v. Charge 1, 2, charge 3, 4, charge 5, 6 and charge 7 are homonyms.

Diamond – 1) brilliant precious stone of pure carbon in crystallized form, the hardest substance known; 2) piece of this substance (often artificially made) as used in industry, or a stylus for playing gramophone records; 3) figure with four equal sides whose angles are not right angles; this shape (as printed in red on playing-cards); 4) (baseball) the space inside the lines that connect the bases/parts. Diamond 1–4 is a polysemous word.

Leaves – 1) pl. of leaf; 2) 3rd person sing. of leave; 3) pl. of leave ‘occasion of being absent from duty’. Leaves 1, leaves 2, leaves 3 are homonyms.

Mark – 1) line, scratch, cut, stain, etc. that spoils the appearance of sth; 2) noticeable spot on the body by which a person or animal can be recognized; 3) visible trace, sign or indication (of a quality); 4) figure, design, line, etc. made as a sign or indication; 5) numerical or alphabetical symbol to indicate an award in an examination, or for conduct; 6) target, sth aimed at; 7) distinction, fame; 8) the mark standard; 9) cross made on a document by an illiterate person; 10) (athletics) line indicating the starting-point of a race; 11) (with numbers) model or type; 12) unit of German currency; 13) mark v. Mark 1–11, mark 12, mark 13 are homonyms.

Plane – 1) one of several kinds of tree with spreading branches, broad leaves and thin bark, which comes off in flakes; 2) tool for trimming the surface of wood by taking shavings from it; 3) flat or level surface; 4) main supporting surface of an aeroplane; 5) level or stage (of development, etc.). Plane 1, plane 2, plane 3, 4 are homonyms.

Tract – 1) stretch or area (of forest, farmland, etc.); 2) system of related parts in an animal body; 3) short printed essay on sth, esp. a moral or religious subject. Tract 1 and 2 are meanings of a polysemantic word, tract 3 is their homonym.

NB The reasons for qualifying them as polysemantic or homonymous words lie in the possibility or impossibility of establishing semantics ties between the meanings.

3. a) eye n 1) organ of sight; 2) thing like an eye – metaphoric transfer;

front n 1) foremost or the most important side; 2) (war) part where the fighting is taking place – narrowing (specialization);

pickle n 1) salt water, vinegar, etc. for keeping meat, vegetables, etc. in good condition; 2) (usu. pl) vegetables kept in vinegar – metonymic transfer;

scorpion n 1) arachnid with lobster-like claws and jointed tail that can be bent over to inflict poisoned sting on prey held in claws; 2) (bibl.) whip armed with metal points; 3) the zodiacal sign Scorpio – metaphorical transfer;

scout n 1) person sent out to get information; 2) member of boys’ organization – metaphoric transfer; 3) patrolman of motoring organization – narrowing (specialization) of scout 1;

slight a 1) slender, frail-looking; 2) inconsiderable; 3) not much or great or thorough, inadequate, scanty – metaphoric transfer;

think v 1) consider, be of opinion; 2) intend, expect, remember; 3) form conception of – metaphorical transfers;

civil a 1) of or proper to citizens; 2) polite, obliging, not rude; 3) not naval, military, etc. – 2 – metonymic transfer, 3 – narrowing (specialization) of civil 1;

crack v 1) make sudden sharp or explosive noise; 2) break (nut, skull, etc.) with sudden sharp report – metaphorical transfer;

cream n 1) part of cream with high content of fat, which gathers on the top, and by churning is made into butter; 2) best or choicest part of anything; 3) part of a liquid that gathers at the top; 4) creamlike preparation, esp. cosmetic – metaphorical transfers;

crooked a 1) not straight, bent, twisted; 2) not straightforward, dishonest –metaphorical transfer;

master n 1) person having control; 2) one who has or gets the upper hand; 3) male teacher or tutor; 4) skilled workman, or one in business on his own account – narrowing (specialization) of master 1;

b) doctor n 1) teacher, learned man; 2) holder of the highest university degree in any faculty; 3) physician – narrowing (specialization) of doctor 1;

cat n 1) small furry domesticated carnivorous quadruped; 2) spiteful or malicious woman; 3) any member of genus Felis, e.g. lion, tiger, leopard – cat 2 – metaphorical transfer, cat 3 – generalization (widening);

caste n 1) Hindu hereditary class, with members socially equal, united in religion, and usu. following some trades, having no social intercourse with persons of other castes; 2) more or less exclusive social class – generalization (widening);

cure v 1) restore to health, relieve (person of disease); 2) eliminate (an evil) –generalization (widening);

curator n 1) person in charge, manager; 2) keeper or custodian of museum – narrowing (specialization);

evidence n 1) clearness, obviousness; 2) indication, sign (of quality, treatment, etc.); 3) testimony, facts in support of a conclusion – evidence 2 – metonymic transfer, evidence 3 – narrowing (specialization);

meal n 1) edible part of any grain or pulse (usu. wheat) ground to powder; 2) powdery substance made by grinding – generalization (widening);

c) meat n 1) (arch.) food of any kind; 2) animal flesh as food excluding fish and poultry – narrowing (specialization);

noble a 1) illustrious by rank, title, or birth, belonging to the nobility; 2) of lofty character or ideals; 3) showing greatness of character, magnanimous, morally elevated; splendid, magnificent, stately, imposing, impressive; 4) excellent, admirable – generalization (widening);

pledge n 1) thing handed over to person as security for fulfillment of contract, payment of debt, etc. and liable to forfeiture in case of failure; 2) thing put in pawn; 3) child as token of mutual love – pledge 2 – generalization (widening), pledge 3 – metaphorical transfer or narrowing (specialization);

script n 1) handwriting, written characters; 2) system of writing; 3) text of play, film, etc.; 4) (law) original document – script 2 – generalization (widening), script 3, 4 – metonymic transfers;

refrain v 1) (arch.) put restraint upon, curb; 2) abstain from doing sth – generalization (widening) (ME ‘put bridle on’);

d) scrivener n 1) (hist.) copyist, drafter of documents, notary, broker, money-lender; 2 (derog.) writer, author – deterioration;

spinster n 1) (arch.) woman who spins; 2) unmarried woman – deterioration;

flaw n 1) crack, breach, rent; 2) imperfection, blemish – deterioration;

silly a 1) (arch.) innocent, simple, helpless; 2) foolish, imprudent, unwise; 3) feeble-minded, imbecile – deterioration;

lady n 1) ruling woman; 2) woman to whom man is chivalrously devoted; 3) woman belonging to the upper class – amelioration;

queen n 1) king’s wife; 2) female sovereign of kingdom; 3) worshipped female; 4) person’s sweetheart or wife or mistress woman – amelioration (OE ‘woman’);

pedagogue n (arch. or derog.) schoolmaster, teacher – deterioration;

miss n 1) as title of unmarried woman or girl without higher title; 2) (usu. derog. or playful) girl, esp. schoolgirl, often with implication of silliness or sentimentality – deterioration;

nice a 1) fastidious, dainty, hard to please, of refined or critical tastes; 2) requiring precision, care, tact, or discrimination; 3) minute, subtle; 4) attentive, close; 5) delicately sensitive; 6) agreeable, attractive, delightful, well-flavoured, satisfactory, kind, friendly, considerate – amelioration (ME ‘stupid, wanton’);

serve v 1) be servant (to), do service (to); 2) meet needs of, avail, suffice, satisfy, perform function; 3) dish up, set (food) on table, set out ready; 4) treat, treat to, pay (person) out – amelioration (ME, fr. L servus ‘slave’);

penthouse n 1) sloping roof, esp. as subsidiary structure attached to wall of main building; 2) house or flat on roof of tall building – amelioration;

minister n 1) person employed in execution of (purpose, will, etc.); 2) person at head of government department; 3) Prime-minister – amelioration (OE, fr. L minister ‘servant’);

pulpit n 1) raised enclosed platform usu. with desk from which preacher in church or chapel delivers sermon; 2) the profession of preaching; 3) the preachers – metonymic transfer and narrowing (specialization) (ME scaffold ‘platform’).

4. Creation 1) the act of creating; 2) all created things – ACTION – RESULT;

moulding 1) act of moulding or shaping; 2) line of ornamental plaster, carved woodwork, etc. round a wall or window – ACTION – RESULT;

rubber 1) tough elastic substance made from the milky substance that flows from some trees when the bark is cut; 2) piece of rubber material for rubbing out pencil marks; 3) (pl) overshoes (galoshes) made of rubber – SUBSTANCE – THING MADE OF SUBSTANCE;

iron 1) commonest of all metallic elements, used in various forms; 2) tool, etc. made of iron – SUBSTANCE – THING MADE OF SUBSTANCE;

lamb 1) young of the sheep; 2 its flesh as food – ANIMAL – ITS FLESH AS FOOD;

chicken 1) young bird, esp. a young hen; 2 its flesh as food – ANIMAL – ITS FLESH AS FOOD.

5. Hall 1) (building with) large room for meetings, concerts, public business; 2) (in colleges at English universities) large room for meals; 3) building for university students; 4) (in England) large country house, usu. one that belongs to the chief landowner of the district; 5) passage, space, into which the main entrance or front door of a building opens – radial semantic structure;

hand 1) part of the human arm beyond the wrist; 2) (pl) power, possession, responsibility; 3) (sing only) influence or agency; 4) (sing only) skill in using one’s hands; 5) person who does what is indicated by the context; performer; 6) workman, e.g. in a factory or dockyard; member of a ship’s crew; 7) turn, share in an activity; 8) pointer or indicator on the of a watch, clock or other instrument; 9) handwriting; 10) signature – radial semantic structure;

mess 1) company of persons taking meals together (esp. in the Armed Forces); 2) these meals; 3) the room, etc. in which the meals are eaten – chain (concatenative) semantic structure;

road 1) specially prepared way, publicly or privately owned, between places for the use of pedestrians, riders, vehicles, etc.; 2) one’s way or route; 3) way of getting to; 4) (usu. pl) stretch of water near the shore in which ships can ride at anchor – radial semantic structure;

sea 1) expanse of salt water that covers most of the earth’s surface and encloses its continents and islands; any part of this; 2) particular area of sea which is smaller than an ocean; inland body of water; lake; 3) local state of the sea; swell of the ocean; big wave or billow; 4) large quantity or expanse – mixed semantic structure.

6. Run v – run fast, upstairs, three miles; He used to run when he was at college; run for President, mayor; run the danger of sth; run a fox; run a business, a theatre, a bus company;

charge v – charge with murder, charge with neglecting one’s duty; charge the enemy; charge fifty pence for sth; charge an accumulator; charge with an important mission;

chair n – take a chair, move a chair; take the chair; leave the chair;

must v – You must do as you are told; She said she must have a new hat for Easter; You must be hungry after your long walk;

leg n – lose one’s leg, have a leg of mutton for dinner, the leg of a stocking; a stool with three legs, the legs of a bed;

language n – foreign languages; a person with a good command of language, the language of diplomacy; computer language;

gold n – in gold; a heart of gold; the red and gold of the woods in autumn.

Topic 3.3

1. Blind a 1) without sight; 2) without foresight, discernment, intellectual perception, or adequate information; 3) concealed; v 1) make unable to see, permanently or temporarily; rob of judgement, deceive; 2) go blindly or heedlessly; n ‘obstruction to sight or light; screen for windows, esp. on roller; awning of shop-window’ – blind a, blind v and blind n are lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Ear n 1) organ of hearing in man or animals, esp. external part of this; 2) faculty of discriminating sound; listening, attention; 3) ear-shaper thing, esp. handle of jug (OE, [ẽare]);

ear n ‘spike or head of corn, containing its flowers or seeds’ (OE, [ẽar]).

The two words are lexical homonyms the sound forms of which converged.

Heavy a 1) of great weight; of great density; weighty because abundant; laden with; carrying heavy arms; 2) (phys.) having a greater than the usual mass; 3) severe, intense, extensive; acting in this manner; serious, forceful; 4) striking or falling with force; 5) clumsy or ungraceful in appearance or effect – semantically related meanings of a polysemantic word.

Mount n 1) mountain, hill; 2) (palmistry) fleshy prominence on palm of hand – (ME, fr. OE munt and OF mont, fr. L mons, montis ‘mountain’);

mount n ‘margin surrounding picture or photograph; card on which drawing is mounted; setting for gem etc.; ornamental metal parts of thing; horse for person’s riding; chance of riding, esp. as jockey’ (ME, fr. OF munter).

The two words are lexical homonyms the sound forms of which converged.

There is also a lexico-grammatical homonym mount v 1) ascend (hill, stairs, etc.); 2) get on (horse, etc.) for purpose of riding; put (person) on horse, etc.; 3) raise (guns) into position on a fixed mounting (ME, fr. OF munter).

Pen n ‘small enclosure for cows, sheep, poultry, etc., or for other purposes’ (OE penn, of unkn orig.);

pen n 1) quill-feather with quill pointed and split in two, for writing with ink; similar instrument of streel, gold, etc. fitted into rod of wood, plastic, etc.; 2) writing, style of writing (ME fr. OF penne, fr. L penna ‘feather’);

pen n ‘female swan’ (16th c.; unkn orig.).

The three forms as well as their derivatives pen v ‘enclose, shut up (cattle, etc.) in pen’ and pen v ‘write, compose and write, (letter etc.)’ are homonyms as there are no semantic relations between their meanings.

Point n 1) very small mark on a surface; 2) stop or punctuation mark; dot, small stroke; 3) single item, detail, particular; 4) unit of scoring in games etc., or fig. in debate – semantically related meanings of a polysemantic word.

2. Poker 1 n ‘stiff metal rod with handle, for poking fire’ (fr. poke + -er);

poker 2 n ‘card-game for two or more persons’(19th c., unkn orig.);

mean 1 a (of quantity) equally far from two extremes, equally removed from two opposite (usu. blameworthy) extremes (ME, fr. AF me(e)n, fr. OF meien, moien, fr. L medianus ‘median’);

mean 2 a 1) (of capacity, understanding, etc.) inferior, poor; 2) not imposing in appearance, shabby; 3) ignoble, small-minded; malicious, ill-tempered; 4) niggardly, not generous or liberal (OE (ge)mæne).

3. – Why is a girl like a hinge? – Because she is something to adore.

The pun is based on the identity of sound forms to adore and to a door.

Topic 4.1

1. The given words forms are all segmentable into morphemes: quick-ness, tempt-ation, walk-ed, ask-s, smil-ing, morph-o-logy, learn-er, learn-er-s as there are structurally and semantically related oppositions to their components easily found in the system of the English language.

5. Readability – read-abl-ity (complete segmentability), affection – affect-ion (possible af-fect-tion; affect – conditional segmentability), telepathy – tele-pathy (complete segmentability, bound morphemes), explain – explain (possible ex-plain – conditional segmentability), confuse – confuse (possible con-fuse – conditional segmentability), horrid – horr-id (complete segmentability, bound morphemes), bilberry – bil-berry (defective segmentability), hammock – hamm-ock (defective segmentability), roommate – room-mate (complete segmentability), cardiac – cardi-ac (complete segmentability, bound morphemes).

6. Raspberry – rasp-berry (there is no binary opposition, defective segmentation), happy – happ-y (there is no binary opposition, defective segmentation, hap is archaic), English – Engl-ish (the root is bound), complain – com-plain (no transparent meaning of the constituents, conditional segmentability), understand – understand (no semantic relationship with stand and under, non-segmentable), kneel – knee-l (there is no binary opposition, defective segmentation, -l is not used in any other word).

7. Postcard – post-card (two-morhemic, polyradical word), reexamination – re-examin-ation (three-morhemic, monoradical, prefixal-suffixal word), spriteliness – sprite-li-ness (three-morhemic, monoradical, suffixal word), unrecognizableness – un-recognize (possible re-cogn-ize)-able-ness (polymorphic, monoradical, prefixal-suffixal word), seedcake – seed-cake (two-morhemic, polyradical word), geometry – geo-metry (two-morhemic, polyradical word), optionalize – option (possible opt-ion) -al-ize (polymorphic, monoradical, suffixal word), multilayer – multi-lay-er (three-morhemic, monoradical, prefixal-suffixal word), multidisciplinary – multi-discipline-ary (three-morhemic, monoradical, prefixal-suffixal word), laryngotracheobronchitis – laryng-o-trache-o-bronch-itis (six-morphemic, polyradical, suffixal word with two combining forms).

Topic 4.2

2. Humanity – the derivational base is the word human, which has undergone the change of stress and is represented by its morphological stem to which the suffix is added;

snowflake – the derivational bases are the words snow, flake represented by their morphological stems which have undergone the process of composition;

blue-eyed – the derivational base is the word combination blue eyes the members of which are represented by their morphological stems and have undergone the process of composition and simultaneously that of suffixation;

four-wheeler – the derivational base is the word combination four wheels the members of which are represented by their morphological stems and have undergone the process of composition and simultaneously that of suffixation;

smog – the derivational bases are the words smoke and fog which have undergone the processes of shortening and composition in the form of a blend;

T-shirt – the derivational bases are the word shirt and the letter T which have undergone the process of composition;

aircraft-carrier – the derivational bases are the compound word aircraft and the suffixal word carrier which are represented by their morphological stems and have undergone the process of composition;

doc – the derivational base is the word doctor, which has undergone the process of shortening and is represented by one syllable;

UNESCO – the derivational base is the word combination United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation the members of which have undergone the process of shortening and are represented by their first letters;

televise – the derivational base is the word television which has undergone the process of backformation (the suffix -ion has been dropped off).

3. Vet – one-morpheme word, derived by abbreviation from veterinarian; BBC – one-morpheme word, derived by abbreviation from British Broadcasting Corporation; wildanimal-tamer (a+n)+(v_a+-er) – four-morpheme compound word proper of four degrees of derivation; eligibility (a+-ity) – two or three-morpheme suffixal derived word; prep – one-morpheme word, derived by abbreviation from preparation or prepare; maths – one-morpheme word, derived by abbreviation from mathematics; V-day – two-morpheme word, derived by abbreviation from victory and composition; lemon-squeezer ([n+(v+-er)] – N) – three-morpheme compound word proper of two degrees of derivation; weekender ([v_(n+n)+-er] – N) – three-morpheme suffixal derived word of three degrees of derivation; instruct – two-morpheme simple word.

4. Animal n – animalic, animalian, animalier, animalism, animalist, animalize, animallike, animally, animal heat, animal dance, etc.;

wolf n – wolfish, wolflike, wolf v;

dog n – dog v, dog adj, dog adv, dog-ear, dog-eared, dogfight, dogged, dogger, doggish, doggy, dogheaded, doghouse, dogleg, dogmeat, dogskin, dogsled, dogsleep, dogtrot, doglike, dogdom, doghole, doggie, dog flea, dog tag, dog tick, dog town, etc.;

kangaroo n – kangaroo acacia, kangaroo apple, kangaroo court; kangaroo dog, kangaroo vine, etc.;

man n – man v, manback, man-child, man-day, mandom, man-eater, man-eating, manful, man-god, manhandle, man-hater, manhood, man-hour, manhunt, mankind, manless, manlike, manly, man-made, man-milliner, man-minute, manned, mannish, man-of-all-work, man-of-war, manservant, manshift, man-size(d), manslaughter, manstealing, man-tailored, manward, manway, man-woman, man-year;

woman n – woman v, womanfolk, woman-grown, womanhood, womanhouse, womanish, womanity, womanize, womankind, womanless, womanlike, womanly, woman-post, womanpower, woman hater, woman chaser, etc.;

person n – personable, personal, personate, personify, personize;

agent n – agential, agenting, agentive, agentry, agent-general, agent code, agent cipher, etc;

teacher n – teacherage, teacherless, teachery, teachership;

student n – studentship, student body, student council, student government, student lamp, student teacher, student volunteer, etc.;

friendliness n – 0;

beauty n – beatific, beautify, beauteous, beautician, beautiful, beauty contest, beauty sleep, etc.;

significance – 0.

5. Differentiation n ([(a+-ate)+-ion] – N), antivirus (anti-+n), coinage n (v_n+-age – A), nuclear physicist n ([(a+n)+-ist] – N), exceptionality n ([(n+-al)+-ity] – N).

7. Builder – строитель, antiwar – антивоенный, humanity – человечество, brotherhood – братство, bearish – медвежий, yellowish – желтоватый, cleverness – ум. The correlative patterns in both the languages are: (v+-sf) – N, prf-+a – A, n+-sf – N, n+-sf – A, a+-sf – A.

Topic 4.3.1

1. The affix is a derivational one in redefine, dependent, educator, harmonious, intake, desurface, appreciative.

2. a) create – creation, eliminate – elimination, dominate – domination, persuade – persuasive, submit – submissive;

b) farm – farming, clean – cleaning, question – questioning, polite – politeness, separate – separateness.

The suffixes -ion, -ive are borrowed and derivation with them is accompanied by morphonological changes. The suffixes -ing and -ness are native, there are no morphonological changes in the process of derivation.

3. Unpretentiousness – (un-+a)+-ness – N, (un(pretentious)ness); malodorousness – [(mal-+(n+-ous)]+-ness – N or [(mal-+n)+-ous]+-ness – N, (mal(odor)ous)ness); trades-unionist (n+n)+-ist – N, (tradesunion)ist); nuclear-physicist (a+n)+-ist – N, (nuclear)physics)ist); desynonymize [de-+(n+-ize)] – V, (de(synonym)ize); misappreciation [mis-+(v+-ion)] – N, (mis(appreciate)ion); unpleasantness [(un-+a)+-ness] – N, (un(pleasant)ness).

4. Indisputableness (three or four steps of derivation depending on the interpretation of dispute as a simple or derived word), unknowableness (three steps of derivation), irresponsiveness (three steps of derivation), unseaworthyness (four steps of derivation), theatricalization (three steps of derivation), revitalization (three steps of derivation), dehydrogenizer (three steps of derivation), librarianess (two steps of derivation), petticoatless (one step of derivation).

7. Productive derivational patterns in present-day English word formation: v+-er – N, v+-able – A, v+-ing – N, un-+a – A, a+-ish – A, n+-less – A, n+-like – A, etc.; semi-productive: n+-ful – A, n+-ly – A, v +-ee – N, etc.; non-productive: n+-ify – V, a+-ize – V, n+-ate – V, etc.

8. Active affixal patterns in present-day English word formation: v+-er – N, v+-able – A, v+-ing – N, un-+a – A, a+-ish – A, n+-less – A, n+-like – A, etc.; non-active: a+-ice – N, n+-ify – V, a+-ize – V, n+-ate – V, etc.

9. English affixes of negation: a- (asymmetric), dis-, ex-, in-, non-, un- (unfair); resemblance: crypto-, epi-, meta-, pro-, pseudo-, -en, -ette, -like, -ly, -ous, -some, -wise, -y; state and quality: -acy, -age, -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency, -ation, -cy, -dom, -ery/-ry, -hood, -ing, -ism, -itude, -ity, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, -ude, -ure).

Topic 4.3.2

1. (A bottle’s) cork n – cork v (the bottle), (an initial) a step – initial v (the memo), (a grey) wig n – wig v (the actress), (an old) tree n – tree v (the avenue), (long) marches n – (the soldiers) marched v.

2. Jail (the prisoner) – conversion; imprison (the thief) – prefixation; hospitalize (the patient) – suffixation; volunteer (the information) – conversion.

3. All the verbs are morphemically two-root, not one-root words.

4. In the pairs rake n – rake v, farm n – farm v, tail n – tail v, bicycle n – bicycle v the noun is the basic word and the verb is derived; in the pairs mature adj – mature v, wet adj – wet v, clean adj – clean v the adjective is the basic word and the verb is derived; in the pairs show n – show v, drive n – drive v, answer n – answer v, gossip n – gossip v the verb is the basic word and the noun is derived.

6. The semantic relations in the following pairs of words are as follows: catch v – catch n, rub v – rub n (action – instance of the action), say v – say n (action – result or instance of the action), drive v – drive n (action – place of the action), find v – find n (action – result of the action), run v – run n (action – instance of the action), ride v – ride n (action – instance of the action).

7. The formation of verbs on the basis of baker, farmer, banker, driver is not welcome due to their derivational character; hospital has a suffixal derivative hospitalize; Dodge, Ford, Fourth-of-July, Saturday are proper names, the formation of verbs on the basis of spring, fall (autumn) is unwelcome due to semantic reasons.

Topic 4.3.3

1. Compounds: sea-shore, door-handle, grass-green, outcome, call-girl, page-turner, hold-up, standstill, speakeasy, newly-born, milk-white, twelvemonth, knock-about, red-hot, nearby, upbringing, do-gooder, upright.

Word-phrases: green grass, child’s play, pale blue, settled opinion, good to drink, way back, page three, surgically clean, to sell for cash, as good as gold, winding passage, fine month, twelve months, red tulips, good for nothing.

2. Bedroom – cpd p, n+n; hot-tempered – d cpd, (a+n)+-ed; stone-cold – cpd p, n+a; sunglasses – cpd p, n+n; homesick – cpd p, n+a; broad-minded – d cpd, (a+n)+-ed; ready-made – cpd p, a+part II; skating-rink – cpd p, (v+-ing)+n; first-rate – cpd p, num+n; cold-blooded – d cpd, (a+n)+-ed; water-proof – cpd p, n+n; street-fighter – cpd p, n+n; whereabouts – cpd p, adv+prt; dirt-cheap – cpd p, n+a; moreover – cpd p, adv+prt; rainbow – cpd p, n+n; sky-blue – cpd p, n+a; straightforward – cpd p, adv+adv; wrong-sided – d cpd, (a+n)+-ed; earthquake – cpd p, n+n; offspring – cpd p, prt+n; four-wheeler – d cpd, (num+n)+-er; house-keeper – cpd p, n+n; deadline – cpd p, a+n; life-sized – d cpd, (n+n)+-ed.

3. Productive: n+n, a+n, v+n, n+a, adv+(v+-ing), (v+prt)+0, (a+n)+-ed.

5. Absent-mindedness – derivative, suffixation; lipstick – cpd p; to baby-sit – derivative, back derivation; early-riser – cpd p; schoolmasterish – derivative, suffixation; newcomer – cpd p; four-wheeler – d cpd; a breakdown – derivative, conversion; sunflower – cpd p; music-lover – cpd p; old worldish – derivative, suffixation; first-nighter – derivative, suffixation; headache – cpd p; cinema-goer – cpd p; honey-mooner – derivative, suffixation; grandfatherly – derivative, suffixation; broad-shouldered – d cpd; a brainstorm – cpd p; evil-doer – cpd p; to braindrain – derivative, conversion; weight-conscious – cpd p; newlyweds – cpd p.

6. Beggar-marriages – cpd p, serious-faced – d cpd, high-ceilinged – d cpd, beige-carpeted – d cpd, lived-in – cpd p, worked-in –cpd p; schoolmasterish – derivative, suffixation, eye-opener – cpd p, page-turner – cpd p, brainstorm – cpd p.

7. Earing – place, snow-white – resemblance, colour-blind – quality, frost-bitten – agent, shop-owner – possession, daylight – partitive, ice-breaker – agent, holiday-maker – agent, seasick – cause or agent, narrow-minded – quality, finger-ring – place, life-sized – quality, homemade – origin, spring-cleaning – time, grass-green – resemblance, sugar-free – quality, schoolmaster – agent, place, sunset – partitive, fair-haired – quality, deck-chair – place, world-wide – place.

8. Motivated compounds: bathroom, sunshine, waterfall, weekend, landslide, fortune-teller, dishwasher, good-looking.

Partially motivated: housewife, bluebell, horse-race, flower-bed, swimming-pool, sun-blinds, easy-going.

Non-motivated (idiomatic): tallboy, chatter-box, lady-killer, eye-opener, highlight, page-turner, brainwash, lazybones, lady-bird.

Topic 4.3.4

2. Graphical shortenings: Ap, Apl (April), apd (approved), apmt (appointment), hr (hour), Mr (Mister); lexical shortenings: BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), MP (Member of Parliament), PS (postscript).

6. Initial clipping: burbs (suburbs), chute (parachute), gator (alligator), phone (telephone), roo (kangaroo); final clipping: ad (advertisement), celeb (celebrity), champ (champion), chimp (chimpanzee), croc (crocodile), deb (debutante), doc (doctor), dorm (dormitory), exam (examination), gym (gymnasium), hippo (hippopotamus), info (information), lab (laboratory), limo (limousine), lino (linoleum), loco (locomotive), mag (magazine), mic (microphone), photo (photograph), pol (politician), pro (professional), reg (registration), rep (representative or repertory), rhino (rhinoceros), sax (saxophone), teen (teenager), veg (vegetable), zoo (zoological garden); both initial and final clipping: flu (influenza), fridge (refrigerator); middle clipping: comms (communications), hols (holidays), maths (mathematics), specs (spectacles), stats (statistics).

9. Biopic (biographical picture), brunch (breakfast + lunch), Brangelina (Brad + Angelina), docudrama (documentary drama), docusoap (documentary + soap opera), herkey (hero + turkey), medicare (medical care), motel (motor + hotel), netiquette (internet + etiquette), netizen (internet + citizen), showbiz (show business), sitcom (situation comedy), smog (smoke + fog), webcam (web camera), webliography (web bibliography).

12. Initial shortenings pronounced as a regular word existing in the language: AIDS (Aids), BASIC (Basic), FIFA, LAN, UEFA, UFO (ufo), UNESCO (Unesco), WAN, Wasp (WASP); initial shortenings pronounced as a series of letters: AP, BBC, bpi, bps, BST, DC, EFL, EU, FA, GB, GDP, HQ, IQ, LSD, MEP, PC, R&B.

17. a) a-c (air conditioner), initial shortening; b) adverts (advertisements), clipping; c) amends (amendments), clipping; d) gent (gentleman), clipping; e) internet (international net), blending; f) Interpol (international police), blending; g) memo (memorandum), clipping; h) mitts (mittens), clipping; i) Nato (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), initial shortening; j) okay (OK, all right), initial shortening; k) perm (permanent), clipping; l) T-shirts (an informal shirt with short sleeves and no collar or buttons), initial shortening; m) U-boat (underwater boat), initial shortening; n) vet (veterinarian), clipping.

21. 1k, 2g, 3h, 4b, 5c, 6d, 7a, 8e, 9i, 10j, 11f, 12l.

22. Abbreviation: EU, jazzercise, laser, magalog, pants, phone, photo, radar, U-station; back-derivation: to automate, to baby-sit, to house-keep, to meditate; compression: all-in-one, goody-two-shoes, know-it-all, merry-go-round, one-size-fits-all, up-to-the-minute; lexicalization: colours, customs, has-been, pictures; reduplication: chit-chat, goody-goody, ping-pong, ticky-tacky, tutty-frutty, walkie-talkie; sound-imitation: bark, buzz, cock-a-doodle-doo, cuckoo, miaow (meow).

Topic 5.1

1. Craft-brother, field-telegraph, glow-worm – compound words (the graphic criterion is the most evident one); Eskimo pie; field pea; field bean – the status of these complex units is not clear, in linguistic literature they are most often described as complex nominals; avalanche of ice, papers, letters, blows, missiles; fiery sun, beams, trial, eyes, speeches, horse, disposition; glowing eyes, furnace, admiration, account; see smth (the joke, the point, the meaning of smth, smb’s reason; international law (agreement, trade, conference, code), international lawyer; intermediate gear, intermediate steps (measures) are word combinations due to the freedom of combinability of their components; till the cows come home is a sentence (a combination of words with predication) which having acquired stability and idiomaticity has turned into a phraseological unit.

2. Teach well, badly, competently, skillfully – grammatical valency (the verb combines with adverbs), lexical valency (the verb combines with adverbs denoting evaluation); teach children, adults, a mixed class of boys and girls – grammatical valency (the verb combines with nouns), lexical valency (the verb combines with nouns denoting human beings or groups of human beings); teach smb a good lesson – grammatical valency (the verb combines with nouns/pronouns which are followed by a (modified) noun), lexical valency (the verb combines with nouns denoting human beings or groups of human beings or substituting pronouns which are followed by the word lesson);

bring a present, his things, one’s luggage upstairs, chairs, spoons – grammatical valency (the verb combines with nouns), lexical valency (the verb combines with nouns denoting physical objects); bring an answer, good news, a message – grammatical valency (the verb combines with nouns), lexical valency (the verb combines with nouns denoting abstract notions (information); bring snow, rain, bad weather – grammatical valency (the verb combines with nouns), lexical valency (the verb combines with nouns denoting meteorological events); bring him to see my point, bring them to see the wisdom of his plan – grammatical valency (the verb combines with nouns/pronouns which are followed by a verb infinitive), lexical valency (the verb combines with nouns denoting human beings or groups of human beings or substituting pronouns which are followed by a verb infinitive denoting intellectual activity); bring smth home to smb – grammatical valency (the verb combines with nouns/pronouns which are followed by the noun home accompanied by the prepositional noun phrase), lexical valency (the verb combines with nouns denoting abstract notions or substituting pronouns which are followed by the noun home accompanied by the prepositional noun phrase denoting human beings (the addressee).

3. Face – the window (the terrace, the room, the house, etc.) faces south (north, etc.), the street (the garden, the sea, etc.) – окно, терраса, комната, дом выходит на юг (cевер и т.д.), улицу (в сад, к морю и т.д.);

face smb (the speaker, etc.) – сидеть, стоять или повернуться лицом (к говорящему и т.д.);

the problem (the task) that faced us – проблема (задача), которая стояла перед нами;

face the danger, the future, enemy, death bravely, unflinchingly – мужественно, непоколебимо смотреть в лицо опасности, будущему, врагу, смерти.

Love smb dearly, devotedly – любить кого-либо (испытывать любовь) сильно, преданно;

love smth (sweets, ice-cream, comfort, mountain-climbing) – любить что-либо (получать удовольствие от) (конфеты, мороженое, комфорт, альпинизм (лазить по горам);

love to be praised, to be admired – мне (ему, ей и т.д.) очень нравится, когда меня (его, ее и т.д.) хвалят, мною (им, ей и т.д.) восхищаются.

Reply (to a letter, a question, a toast) – отвечать на письмо, вопрос, провозглашенный тост).

Wonder (at smb, smth, at your behavior, at her saying that) – удивляться (поражаться) (кому-либо, чему-либо, его поведению, тому, что она сказала).

Yield (to smth, to force, to pressure, persuasion, temptation) – поддаваться (уступать) чему-либо, силе, давлению, уговорам, соблазну.

Topic 5.2

1. Settle the future of the country ‘определить будущее (судьбу) страны’ – the transparent, deducible meaning of a free (variable) word combination; sink or swim ‘будь что будет; была не была; пан или пропал’ – the metaphorically motivated meaning of a stable phraseological combination; speak of the devil and he is sure to appear ‘легок на помине’ – the metaphorically motivated meaning of a stable phraseological combination; wait for the postman, for a friend, for the train, for instructions – ‘ждать почтальона, друга, поезд, инструкции’ – the transparent, deducible meaning of free (variable) word combinations.

2. According to the semantic criterion: drenched to the bone ‘промокший до костей, до нитки’ – a traditional collocation, a break in the clouds ‘луч надежды (букв. просвет среди туч): надежда на улучшение’ – a traditional collocation or a phraseological unity, creditors have better memories than debtors ‘у заимодавцев память лучше, чем у должников’ – a traditional collocation or a phraseological unity, good egg 1) ‘славный малый’, 2) ‘здорово, браво’ – a phraseological unity, a phraseological fusion, put all one’s eggs in one basket ‘положить все яйца в одну корзину: рисковать всем’ – a phraseological unity, separate the husk from the grain ‘отделить плевелы от пшеницы: отличать важное от второстепенного’ – a phraseological unity, Attic salt ‘аттическая соль: тонкое остроумие (др.-греч. область Аттика славилась остроумием своих жителей)’ – a phraseological unity or a phraseological fusion, lick the boots ‘лизать пятки кому-либо: подхалимничать’ – a phraseological unity or a phraseological fusion, break bread with smb ‘преломить хлеб с кем-либо: пользоваться чьим-либо гостеприимством, быть гостем у кого-либо (библ.)’ – a traditional collocation or a phraseological unity, shoot the bull ‘болтать, трепать языком; «заливать»’ – a phraseological fusion.

According to the the contextual criterion: drenched to the bone ‘промокший до костей, до нитки’ – a phraseme, a break in the clouds ‘луч надежды (букв. просвет среди туч): надежда на улучшение’ – a phraseme, creditors have better memories than debtors ‘у заимодавцев память лучше, чем у должников’ – a free context unit, good egg 1) ‘славный малый’, 2) ‘здорово, браво’ – an idiom, put all one’s eggs in one basket ‘положить все яйца в одну корзину: рисковать всем’ – an idiom, separate the husk from the grain ‘отделить плевелы от пшеницы: отличать важное от второстепенного’ – an idiom, Attic salt ‘аттическая соль: тонкое остроумие (др.-греч. область Аттика славилась остроумием своих жителей)’ – an idiom, lick the boots ‘лизать пятки кому-либо: подхалимничать’ – an idiom, break bread with smb ‘преломить хлеб с кем-либо: пользоваться чьим-либо гостеприимством, быть гостем у кого-либо (библ.)’ – a phraseme or an idiom, shoot the bull ‘болтать, трепать языком; «заливать»’ – an idiom.

According to the functional criterion: drenched to the bone ‘промокший до костей, до нитки’ – a traditional collocation, a break in the clouds ‘луч надежды (букв. просвет среди туч): надежда на улучшение’ – a traditional collocation, creditors have better memories than debtors ‘у заимодавцев память лучше, чем у должников’ – an idiom proper, good egg 1) ‘славный малый’, 2) ‘здорово, браво’ – a substantival phraseological unit, put all one’s eggs in one basket ‘положить все яйца в одну корзину: рисковать всем’ – an idiom proper, separate the husk from the grain ‘отделить плевелы от пшеницы: отличать важное от второстепенного’ – an idiom proper, Attic salt ‘аттическая соль: тонкое остроумие (др.-греч. область Аттика славилась остроумием своих жителей)’ – a substantival phraseological unit, lick the boots ‘лизать пятки кому-либо: подхалимничать’ – a verbal phraseological unit, break bread with smb ‘преломить хлеб с кем-либо: пользоваться чьим-либо гостеприимством, быть гостем у кого-либо (библ.)’ – a traditional collocation, shoot the bull ‘болтать, трепать языком; «заливать»’ – a verbal phraseological unit.

Topic 6

1. a) alphabetic, b) parts of speech.

2. Semantic markers: a man and a woman – human being; a man and a boy – male; a boy and a girl – human being, child; an actor and an actress – male and female; a lion and a pig – animal; a wife and a spinster – human being, adult, female; a bachelor and a spinster – human being, adult, not married; an artist and a plumber – human being, adult, occupation; a cat and a dog – animal, domestic; a widow and a widower – human being, adult, lost a spouse; a cow and a bull – animal, domestic; a niece and a nephew – human being, a relative; a bus and a car – vehicle, a means of transport; an orange and a lemon – fruit, citrus; a sea and an ocean – water reservoir.

Semantic distinguishers: a man and a woman – male and female; a man and a boy – adult and child; a boy and a girl – male and female; an actor and an actress – occupation; a lion and a pig – wild and domestiс; a wife and a spinster – married and never married; a bachelor and a spinster – male and female; an artist and a plumber – artistic and manual; a cat and a dog – feline and canine; a widow and a widower – female and male; a cow and a bull – female and male; a niece and a nephew – female and male; a bus and a car – public and private; an orange and a lemon – orange and yellow; a sea and an ocean – smaller and bigger.

4. Good – bad, deep – shallow, narrow – wide or broad, clever – stupid or fool, young – old, to reject – to accept, to give – to take, strong – weak, joy – sorrow or sadness, evil – good, up – down, slowly – quickly or fast, black – white, sad – merry or gay or cheerful, to die – to live, to open – to close, clean – dirty or filthy, darkness – light, big – small or little.

5. Contraries: big – small; young – old; wide – narrow; beautiful – ugly.

Contradictories (complementaries): single – married; true – false; dead – alive.

Conversives: buy – sell; husband – wife; teacher – pupil; borrow – lend; master – servant.

Directional oppositions: front – back; east – west; come – go; left – right; up – down; arrive – depart; above – below.

6. Stylistic synonyms: see – behold, look – stare, happen – befall, begin – commence – initiate, brotherly – fraternal, end – finish – complete, die – perish.

Ideographic synonyms: look – appear – seem, flat – apartment.

Collocational synonyms: beautiful – handsome, rancid – rotten – addled, tall – high, moist – damp.

7. To glare – to gaze – to peep – to look – to stare – to glance, to astound – to surprise – to amaze – to puzzle – to astonish, strange – quaint – odd – queer, to saunter – to stroll – to wander – to walk – to roam, scent – perfume – smell – odour – aroma, to brood – to reflect – to meditate – to think, to fabricate – to manufacture – to produce – to create – to make, furious – enraged – angry, to sob – to weep – to cry.

8, 9. Animal, dog, poodle (hypero-hyponymic group) – hierarchical; tree, flower, bush, grass, moss, fern (co-hyponyms) – linear; clever, intelligent, smart (synonyms) – linear; winter, spring, summer, autumn (cycle) – linear; mother, father, aunt, uncle, grandmother, grandfather, daughter, son, sister, brother, niece, nephew, mother-in-law, father-in-law, sister-in-law, brother-in-law (lexical paradigm of kinship) – linear; beautiful, ugly (antonyms) – linear; face, nose, mouth, eye, lip, chin, forehead (meronymiс group) – hierarchical; private, corporal, sergeant, warrant officer, lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant colonel, brigadier, major general, lieutenant general, general, field marshal (chain) – linear.

Topic 7

1. Billion 10/12 (BrE) – billion 10/9 (AmE), bill (BrE) – check (AmE), bank note (BrE) – bill (AmE), bookings (BrE) – reservations (AmE), charity organisation (BrE) – non-profit/not-for-profit organization (AmE), cinema (BrE) – movie house ‘theater’ (AmE), dummy (for babies) (BrE) – pacifier (AmE), full-stop (BrE) – period (AmE), handbag (BrE) – purse (AmE), homely (simple in a way that makes you feel comfortable) (BrE) – homey (AmE) (homely in AmE ‘plain or unattractive about a person’), tinned food (BrE) – canned food (AmE), car park (BrE) – parking lot (AmE), potato crisps (BrE) – potato chips (AmE), single ticket (BrE) – one way ticket (AmE), stalls (BrE) – orchestra seats (AmE), sweet (BrE) – candy (AmE), toilet (BrE) – restroom ‘washroom’ (AmE).

2. a) janitor; b) antenna; c) fall; d) bills; e) roller coaster; f) cookies; g) shoestrings; h) pants, suspenders; i) recess.

3. Аптека – chemist’s (BrE) – drugstore, pharmacy (AmE); в отпуске – on holiday (BrE) – on vacation (AmE); грузовик – lorry (BrE) – truck (AmE); дневник – diary (record) (BrE) – journal (AmE); ж.-д. касса – booking office (BrE) – ticket office (AmE); заполнить анкету – fill in a form (BrE) – fill out a form (AmE); класс (в школе) – form (BrE) – grade (AmE); купать (выкупать) – to bath (BrE) – to bathe (AmE); метро – underground (BrE) – subway (AmE); миксер – liquidiser (BrE) – blender (AmE); овсяная каша – porridge (BrE) – oatmeal (AmE); переезд (перекресток) – crossroads (BrE) – intersection (AmE); подземный переход – subway (BrE) – pedestrian underpass (AmE); почтальон – postman (BrE) – mailman (AmE); свитер – jumper (BrE) – sweater (AmE); страна – country (BrE) – nation (AmE); стюардесса – air hostess (BrE) – flight attendant (AmE); тренировка – training (BrE) – work out (AmE); умный – clever (BrE) – smart (AmE); фарш – minced meat (BrE) – ground meat (AmE); центр города – centre of the city (BrE) – downtown (AmE); ящик для мусора – dust-bin (BrE) – garbage (trash) can (AmE).

Topic 8

22. a) abbr. – abbreviation, adj. (A, a, Adj, adj) – adjective, adv. (Adv, adv) – adverb, C – countable noun, conj. (Conj, conj) – conjunction, det. – determiner, n. (N, n) – noun, pl. (pl) – plural, pp – past participle, prep. – preposition, pron. (Pron, pron) – pronoun, pt – past tense, sb – somebody, sing. (sing) – singular, sth – something, symb. – symbol, U – uncountable noun, v. (V, v) – verb;

b) AustralE – Australian English, BrE – British English, CanE – Canadian English, EAfrE – East African English, IndE – Indian English, IrishE – Irish English, NAmE – North American English, NEngE – English from Northern England, NZE – New Zealand English, SAfrE – South African English, ScotE – Scottish English, SEAsianE – South-East Asian English, US – English from the United States, WAfrE – West African English, WelshE – Welsh English;

c) IDM – idiom(s) section of an entry, OPP – shows an opposite, PHR V – phrasal verb(s) section of an entry, SYN – shows a synonym;

d) approving – expressions show that you feel approval or admiration, dialect – describes expressions that are mainly used in particular regions of the British Isles, not including Ireland, Scotland or Wales, disapproving – expressions show that you feel disapproval or contempt, figurative – language is used in a non-literal or metaphorical way, formal – expressions are usually only used in serious or official language and would not be appropriate in normal everyday conversation, humorous – expressions are intended to be funny, informal – expressions are used between friends or in a relaxed or unofficial situation, they are not appropriate for formal situations, ironic – language uses words to mean the opposite of the meaning that they seem to have, iterary – language is used mainly in literature and imaginative writing, offensive – expressions are used by some people to address or refer to people in a way that is very insulting, especially in connection with their race, religion, sex or disabilities, old-fashioned – expressions are passing out of current use, old use – describes expressions that are no longer in current use, saying – describes a well-known fixed or traditional phrase, such as a proverb, that is used to make a comment, give advice, etc., slang – very informal language, sometimes restricted to a particular group of people, for example people of the same age or those who have the same interests or do the same job, taboo – expressions are likely to be thought by many people to be obscene or shocking, you should not use them, technical – language is used by people who specialize in particular subject areas, ™ – shows a trademark of a manufacturing company.