Speech Act Functions and Subfunctions Classification of Illocutionary Acts

Austin and other philosophers tried to understand how an infinite number of sentences might reflect a very finite set of functions. They concluded that since the number of things we do with words is limited, we ought to be able to assign functions to utterances. The problem with assigning functions to sentences is that speaker intent and sentence meaning are not always the same, and no utterance is completely context free in terms of meaning or function. Nevertheless, linguists and philosophers (J.R. Searle, R. Ohmann, Bach K. And Harnish R., J.D.McCawley, Vendler) have given much attention to differences among illocutionary speech acts and proposed various typologies to classify them.

Though Austin was the first to delineate illocutionary acts distinguishing five general classes – verdicatives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives, expositives, – the most prominent taxonomy belongs to J.R. Searle. In his article entitled “Classification of Illocutionary acts” John Searle also pointed out that there is an endless number of illocutionary acts. There are statements, assertions, denials, requests, commands, warnings, promises, vows, offers, apologies, thanks, condolences, appointments, namings, resignations, etc. At the same time, he observed that some illocutionary acts are more closely related than others. His classification is the following (1976: 10-13):

General functions of speech acts (Searle 1979)

Speech act type	Direction of fit	S = speaker X = situation	Examples
Representatives	make words fit the world	S believes X
Expressives	make words fit the world	S feels X	Thanks for your help.
Directives	make the world fit words	S wants X	Do that job!
Commissives	make the world fit words	S intends X	I promise to come
Declarations	words change the world	S causes X	You are fired.

1. Representatives are utterances used to describe some state of affairs. They commit the speaker (in varying degree) to smth’s being the case, to the truth of the expressed proposition. This class includes statements of facts, assertions, conclusions, descriptions, predictions, denials, admissions, notifications, etc. In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (of belief).

Eg.: a. It’s an interesting book.

b. I don’t know Mary Smith.

c. It was a nice trip.

2. Directives are utterances used to try to get the hearer to do smth. They express what the speaker wants. The speaker attempts to make the world fit the words.This class includes acts of asking, inquiring, etc. They include two subcategories:

1. attempts (of varying degrees) by the speaker to get the hearer to do smth. They are acts of commands, ordering, requesting, suggesting, insisting, recommending, warning, advising, etc.

Eg a.Close the door.

b. Give me the umbrella, please.

c. You’d better come.

d. Don’t do that.

e. Could I borrow this newspaper?

f. You must come and see it for yourself.

2. questions are used to get the hearer to provide information.

Eg. a.Where did you buy this?

b. Did you finish the work yesterday?

3. Commissives are utterances used to commit the speaker (in varying degree) to some future course of action. They express what the speaker intends. They are acts of promising, vowing, volunteering, offering, guaranteeing, pledging, betting, refusing, threatening, etc. these acts can be performed by the speaker alone, or by the speaker as a member of a group. In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words.

Eg.: a. I’ll never do that again.

b. I’ll come.

c. I promise to come at 5.

d. I swear I'll do it.

3. Expressives are utterances used to express the emotional/ psychological state of the speaker toward a particular state of affairs. This class includes act of apologizing, thanking, congratulating, condoling, welcoming, deploring, objecting, statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, sorrow, etc. these acts can be caused by smth the speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the speaker’s experience. In using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling).

Eg.: a. I’m so sorry.

b. Happy New Year!

c. Congratulations!

d. Oh, it’s great.

e. I must apologize to you.

3. Declarations are utterances used to change the status of some entity. They bring about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality. This class includes acts of appointing, naming, resigning, baptizing, surrendering, excommunicating, arresting, etc. In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words. As the examples illustrate, the speaker must have a special institutional role and have authority, in a specific context, to perform a declaration appropriately.

Eg.: a.. Referee: You’re out.

b. I announce the meeting open.

c. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.

d. I name this ship King Edward.

Major functions of speech acts, given by Searle, can be subdivided into a number of subfunctions. For example, applying speech act research, the Council of Europe created a “notional-functional syllabus’ (van Ek 1976), identifying the following functions:

1. Exchange of factual information: representatives imparting / seeking factual information

identify, ask, report, say, think

2. Exchange of intellectual information: representatives stating whether you/ ask if others

agree, disagree, remember, forget, consider possible/ logical/certain/uncertain/ obliged; ask or give permission; accept or decline an offer/ invitation

3. Exchange of emotional attitudes: expressives to express your own/question others’

surprise, hope, disappointment; preference; gratitude, sympathy; intention; want; desire

4. Exchange of moral attitudes: expressives to express or request

apology/ forgiveness; approval/ disapproval; appreciation; regret; indifference

5. Suasion: directive

Suggest; request; invite; instruct; advise; warn; offer

6. Socializing: directives /expressives

greet; take leave; introduce; attract attention; propose a toast; congratulate…

Halliday’s (1975, 1976) classification of functions was developed for elementary school classroom:

1. Instrumental

2. Regulatory

3. Interactional

4. Personal

5. Heuristic

6. Imaginative

7. Informative

There are several other well-known typologies that classify functions and subfunctions of illocutionary speech acts. Their authors are R. Ohmann, K.Bach and R.Harnish., J.D.McCawley, Vendler, Wierzbicka.