Classification of refusals

(After Pragmatic Transfer in ESL Refusals

by L.M. Beebe, T.Takahashi, R. Uliss-Weltz)

1. Direct

   1. Performative (I refuse …)

   2. Nonperformative statement

      1. "No"

      2. negative willingness/ability (I cant. I won't. I don't think so)

2. Indirect

   1. Statement of regret (I'm sorry… I feel terrible…)

   2. Wish (I wish I could)

   3. Excuse, reason, explanation

   5. Statement of alternative

      1. I can do X instead of Y (I'd rather… I'd prefer…)

      2. Why don't you do X instead of Y (Why don't you ask someone else?)

   6. Set conditions for future or past exceptence (If you had asked me earlier, I would …)

   7. Promise of future acceptance (I'll do it next time. I promise I will. Next time perhaps.)

   8. Statement of principle (I never do business with friends)

   9. Statement of philosophy (One can't be too careful)

   10. Attempt to dissuade interlocutor

       1. Threat or statement of negative consequences to the requester (I won't be any help tonight)

       2. Guilt trip (waitress to customers who want to sit a while "I can't make a living off people who just order coffee")

       3. Criticize the request/requester (statement of negative feeling or opinion; insult/attack (Who do you think you are? That's a terrible idea!)

       4. Request for help, empathy, and assistance by dropping or holding the request.

       5. Let interlocutor off the hook (Don't worry about it. )

       6. Self-defense (I'm trying my best. I'm doing all I can)

   11. Acceptance that functions as a refusal

       1. Unspecific or indefinite reply

       2. Lack of enthusiasm

   12. Avoidance

       1. Nonverbal

          1. Silence

          2. Hesitation

          3. Do nothing

          4. Physical departure

       2. Verbal

          1. Topic switch

          2. Joke

          3. Repetition of part of request, etc. (Monday?)

          4. Postponent (I'll think about it)

          5. Hedging (Gee, I don't know. I'm not sure)

Representatives

Assert, reassert, negate, deny, correct, claim, affirm, state, disclaim, declare, tell, suggest, guess, hypothesize, conjecture, postulate, predict, forecast, foretell, prophesy, vaticinate, report, retrodict, warn, forewarn, advise, alert, alarm, remind, describe, inform, reveal, divulge, divulgate, notify, insinuate, sustain, insist, maintain, assure, aver, avouch, certify, attest, swear, testify, agree, disagree, asent, dissent, acquisce, object, recognize, acknowlwdge, admit, confess, concede, recant, criticize, blame, accuse, calumniate, reprimand, castigate, denounce, boast, complain, lament

Declaratives

declare, renounce, disclaim, disown, resign, repudiate, disavow, retract, abdicate, abjure, deny, disinherit, yield, surrender, capitulate, approve, confirm, sanction, ratify, homologate, bless, curse, dedicate, consecrate, disapprove, stipulate, name, call, define, abbreviate, nominate, authorize, license, install, appoint, establish, institute, inaugurate, convene, convoke, open, close, suspend, adjourn, terminate, dissolve, denounce, vote, veto, enact, legislate, promulgate, decree, confer, grant, bestow, accord, cede, rule, adjudge, adjudicate, condemn, sentence, damn, clear, acqui, disculpate, exonerate, pardon, forgive, absolve, cancell, annul, abolish, abrogate, revoke, repeal, rescind, retract, sustain, bequeath, baptize, excommunicate.

Expressives

approve, compliment, praise, laud, extol, plaudit, appaud, acclaim, brag, boast, complain, disapprove, blame, reprove, deplore, protest, grieve, mourn, lament, rejoice, cheer, boo, condole, congratulate, thank, apologize, greet, welcome.

	Research & Application

• Theory

1. Give your own definition of

   1. a speech act;

   2. a speech event.

2. Give examples of various speech events in business/ nonbusiness environment.

3. Describe Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts.

4. Speak on felicity conditions.

5. Give examples of felicity conditions on different types of speech acts.

6. What is typical of a performative utterance?

7. Speak on direct and indirect illocutionary acts.

8. Explain the difference between explicit and implicit locutionary acts.

9. Compare Austin’s and Searle’s functions with those of writers in applied linguistics. How do these relate to each other? How do they link speech acts to research on human communication?

10. Find the mistakes (if any) in the following.

1. Speech acts have two facets: an illocutionary act (what is done) and a locutionary act (what is said). The illocutionary act can be achieved either with an explicit performative (a performative verb used in its performative sense) or a nonexplicit performative. A nonexplicit illocutionary act can be performed either directly (syntactic form matches illocutionary force) or indirectly. On the other hand, the illocutionary act can be either expressed (articulates propositional content condition) or implied. Likewise, the locutionary act can be expressed either literally (does not require a nonliteral interpretation) or nonliterally.

2. The illocutionary part of a speech act is what the utterance does rather than what it says. Illocutionary acts are generally grouped into seven types: representatives, directives, verdicatives, commissives, questions, expressives and declarations. Illocutionary acts are valid only if their felicity conditions are met. These conditions can be grouped into four categories: prepararory, sincerity, essential, and propositional content. Illocutionary acts can be achieved through either an explicit or an implicit performative. An implicit performative can be either direct or indirect.

• Analysis