Вариант № 11

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An economist is a professional in the social science discipline of economics. The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. Within this field there are many sub-fields, ranging from the broad philosophical theories to the focused study of minutiae within specific markets, macroeconomics analysis, microeconomics, analysis or financial statement analysis, involving analytical methods and tools such as econometrics, statistics, economics of computational models, financial economics, mathematical finance and mathematical economics.

Economists work in many fields including academia, government and in the private sector, where they may also study data and statistics in order to spot trends in economic activity, economic confidence levels, and consumer attitudes. They assess this information using advanced methods in statistical analysis, mathematics, computer programming, they make recommendations about the ways to improve the efficiency of a system or take advantage of trends.

In contrast to regulated professions such as engineering, law or medicine, there is no legally-required educational requirements or license for economists. In some job settings, the possession of a Bachelor's or Master's degree in economics is considered the minimum credential for being an economist. However, in some parts of the US government, a person can be considered an economist as long as they have four or more university courses in economics. As well, a person can gain the skills required to become a professional economist in other related disciplines, such as statistics or some types of applied mathematics, such as mathematical finance or game theory.

A professional working inside one of many fields of economics or having an academic degree in this subject is widely considered to be an economist, and any person within any of these fields can claim to be one. Economists are also employed in banking, finance, accountancy, commerce, marketing, business administration, lobbying and non- or not-for profit organizations.

2. Найдите ответы на вопросы:

1. What fields do economists work in?

2. When can a person be considered an economist in the USA?

3. Where are the economists employed in?

4. When can a person be considered an economist in Russia?

Вариант № 12

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Company. History and types

A company is a form of business organization. In the United States, a company is a corporation or, less commonly, an association, partnership, or union that carries on an industrial enterprise. Generally, a company may be a corporation, partnership, association, joint-stock company, trust, fund, or organized group of persons, whether incorporated or not.

In English law, and therefore in the Commonwealth realms, a company is a form of body corporate or corporation, generally registered under the Companies Acts or similar legislation. It does not include a partnership or any other unincorporated group of persons.

In the United Kingdom, the main regulating laws are the Companies Act 1985 and the Companies Act 2006. Reportedly, "a company registered under this Act has limited liability: its owners (the shareholders) have no financial liability in the event of winding up the affairs of the company, but they might lose the money already invested in it. In the USA, companies are registered in a particular state-Delaware being especially favoured and become Incorporated (Inc).

In North America, two of the earliest companies were The London Company (also called the Charter of the Virginia Company of London)-an English joint stock company established by royal charter by James I of England on April 10, 1606 with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America and Plymouth Company that was granted an identical charter as part of the Virginia Company. The London Company was responsible for establishing the Jamestown Settlement, the first permanent English settlement in the present United States in 1607. There are various types of companies that can be formed in different jurisdictions, but the most common forms of companies (generally formed by registration under applicable companies legislation) are:

1. company limited by guarantee. Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company. This type of company is common in England.

2. company limited by shares. The most common form of company used for business ventures. Specifically, a limited company is a company in which the liability of each shareholder is limited to the amount individually invested with corporations being the most common example of a limited company. This type of companies is common in England.

3. company limited by guarantee with a share capital. A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return. This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist.

4. limited-liability company. A company-statutorily authorized in certain states that is characterized by limited liability, management by members or lagers, and limitations on ownership transfer.

5. an unlimited company with or without a share capital. A hybrid entity, a any where the liability of members or shareholders for the debts (if any) of company are not limited.