II. Linguistic causes of the semantic change

1. Differentiation (discrimination) of synonyms is a gradual change in the word meaning in the process of its historical development under the influence of other words, originally having the same meaning. Usually it results from the simultaneous coexistence of two words with the same meaning, one of which is native and the other is borrowed. Thus, the original meaning of the word foe was superseded by the French enemi (Modern English enemy) to the sphere of poetic words. Similar examples are synonymic pairs valley/dale, country/land, people/folk where the original English word has a restricted sphere of usage.

2. Ellipsis, the omission of one of the two words habitually used together accompanied by the transfer of its meaning to a remaining partner, e.g. a weekly / a daily (paper); a musical (show); at present (time); durables (from durable goods); presale (view, tasting), private (soldier); pilot (film); cinema (theatre), classified (ad), to be sentenced to life (imprisonment). The same phenomenon takes place in Russian: рабочий (человек), столовая (зала, комната), сотовый (телефон), выходной (день).

3. Linguistic analogy is found out when synonymous words acquire the like meanings, e.g. verbs of getting hold with a hand (catch, grasp, get) develop the meaning ‘to understand’.

Nature of semantic change

Meaning transfer is the basis for semantic change. Types of transfer depend on the nature of connection between the denotatum and its name.

Two types of such connections are usually distinguished – implication (it’s based on logical connection between the whole and the part of an object) and qualification (it assumes that there is a common feature shared by two denotata). Meaning transfer based on implication embraces metonymy, synechdoche and conversion. Meaning transfer based on qualification embraces metaphor, synesthesia and functional transfer.

Metonymy implies existence of real connection between two denotata which are united by the relations of contiguity. It is the transfer of name based on the association of contiguity: an English bobby, a redhead, a brain (a person with a very good mind), sultana.

There are various models of metonymy: spatial – place > people (things) occupying it: town (The whole town was asleep); hall (The hall was silent); Whitehall; 　Wall Street; Fleet Street; Downing Street; Pentagon; kettle (The kettle is boiling), etc. The connection between denotata can be temporal (youth – period of one’s life > a person in this period); material > object made from this material (cork – outer bark of the tree > a stopper for a bottle; paper – substance manufactured from wood fibre, etc. > a document written on it; etc.); inventor > invented object (Volt, jeep, scuba (diving), hoover, Xerox, mace, чупа-чупс, памперсы); etc.

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy consisting in the substitution of the name of the whole by the name of some of its parts (penny = ‘a good sum of money’ (a pretty penny) or vice versa (the Crown = ‘monarchy’), or the singular stands for the plural (royal horse = ‘cavalry’), etc. Usually two directions of synecdoche are discriminated – part for the whole (pars pro toto): a big foot – снежный человек, a private eye – частный сыщик); and whole for the part (totum pars parte), which seldom occurs: lunch – meal taken > packet lunch, free lunch – food for the meal.

Synecdoche causes some transformations in translation such as concretization and generalization: It’s forbidden to sell arms in private hands in this country. – В нашей стране запрещена продажа оружия частным лицам; In this house he’s like family. – В нашем доме он как член семьи; He was an excellent parent. –Он был прекрасным отцом.

Conversion is a type of meaning transfer based on implication featuring the denotatum from two different sides. Thus, the adjective sad can have contrary meanings in the sentences He is sad (feeling sorrow; unhappy) и His story is sad (causing, suggestive, or expressive of such feelings). Similar relations of meaning conversion are seen in the semantic structure of the verb wear: The coat wears long (the subject experiences an action) and Не wears a coat (the subjects acts himself).

A metaphor is a shift of meaning caused by the likeness (similarity of some features of two objects) of denotata. Metaphor is an association based on the similarities of objects. Metaphoric transfer is well illustrated by the meanings of the word bridge which are united by the common feature ‘smth to join two parts over smth’:

1. Structure carrying a road across a river, etc.

2. Platform over and across the deck of a ship.

3. Upper bony part of a nose [between the two cheekbones].

4. Movable part over which the strings of a violin, guitar, etc. are stretched.

5. Group of teeth that is fitted between natural teeth

In fact any characteristics of the two referents may be the basis of the associative link. For example:

Shape: eye (of a needle), neck (of a bottle), the Pencil, a head (of a pin).

Function: (indication) hand of a watch, (tool, method) key to a mystery, (control) head of the country.

Position: foot (of a mountain), back (of a boot).

Behaviour: monkey, bear, fox, lion, ant (when applied to a person).

The usage of proper names for common nouns may cause a metaphor too. E.g. He is a pushkin of our days (he is a very strong poet).

We think by metaphors, consider the following ones: nut, onion (= ‘head’), foxtrot, a star, цены упали, дождь пошел.

We must differ a metaphor from a simile. In simile we use the words as and like. E.g. She is a monkey (metaphor). She is like a monkey (similе).

Synesthesia united denotata on the basis of sense perception. For example, synesthetic transfer takes place in the semantic structure of the adjective soft and results in its different collocability: soft music, voice, whispers – quiet, pleasant to hear, tender (тихий); soft surface, ground, velvet – smooth and delicate, pleasant to touch or walk on (мягкий).

Functional transfer of meaning is based on similarity of two denotata when they perform the same or similar function. Thus, the method of movement of an insect and a tractor is reflected in their common name caterpillar. Green trees in the city perform the same function with the lungs of a man or an animal, which gives basis for nomination lungs (of a town). Functional similarity unites the meanings of the word stool-pigeon: a) pigeon used as a decoy (приманка); b) (fig) person acting as a decoy, e.g. one employed by the police to trap a criminal (осведомитель, доносчик, стукач).

It is often difficult to discriminate between functional transfer and metaphoric transfer within the meaning of one and the same word. Thus, the semantic structure of the word leg illustrates both similarity of form and similarity of function: one of the parts of an animal’s or a person’s body; support for (a body, a cover of a table).

Litotes (understatement) is a transfer of meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the negative or vice versa, e.g. not bad, no coward, etc.

Hyperbole is a transfer of meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration, e.g. to hate (doing something), (not to see somebody) for ages, to roar (with laughter). Hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.g. to make a mountain out of a molehill, to split hairs, etc.

Irony is a transfer of meaning based on the contrast of two notions: the notion named and the notion meant, especially for the purpose of ridicule or disparagement (What a fine friend you are!). One of the meanings of the adjective nice is ‘bad’, ‘unsatisfactory’; it is marked off as ironical, for example: You’ve got us into a nice mess! The same may be said about the adjective pretty: A pretty mess you’ve made of it! That’s a pretty kettle of fish!