Classification of lexical meanings

I. In the general framework of lexical meaning two components (aspects) can be singled out: denotation and connotation. The two components are closely connected with the process of naming (nomination).

The denotational meaning (denotation) is the component of the lexical meaning signifying or identifying the notion or the object and reflecting some essential features of the notion named. The denotational meaning makes the communication possible, as it is essentially the same meaning for all speakers of the language.

The connotational meaning (connotation) is complementary meaning which is added to the word denotational meaning and which serves to express all sorts of evaluative, emotional, expressive, imagery and pragmatic overtones. Connotation includes:

1. the emotive charge: daddy – father; thick – stout (полный, тучный) – buxom (упитаннный, пухлый) – fat – obese – plump, face – snout (рыло), muzzle (морда);

2. evaluation (positive or negative): clique (a small group of people who seem unfriendly to other people) – group (a set of people), new – modern – newfangled (disapproving excessively modern);

However, evaluation can enter denotation. The word friend meaning ‘ally’ is featured by positive rational evaluation: friend – “a country that has a good relationship with another country”. In this case evaluation makes the part of denotation, has the marker good in the dictionary definition, and bases on the integral features of the referent.

3. expressiveness (intensity): to love – to adore; magnificent – gorgeous – splendid – superb;

4. imagery – I heard what she said, but it didn’t sink into my mind until much later; a 15% tariff on bearing import (from to bear “to sell shares in expectation of a drop in price, in order to make a profit by buying them back again after a short time);

5. stylistic value – to start – to begin – to commence; beholder (archaic, literary) – spectator; colloquial vocabulary – cut it out, to be kidding, hi, stuff; special literary vocabulary (bookish words): cordial, fraternal, anticipate, aid, sanguinary, celestial;

6. cultural information – black cat, green eyes (cf. green-eyed monster).

The Russian word combination черная кошка denotes a black cat as well as the English one. However, a black cat is believed to bring bad luck and disaster according to some Russian superstition, that’s why it has negative connotation. The English culture relates black cats to luck, unexpected happiness, so a Russian is often surprised to see a black cat wishing “Good Luck” on English postcards. As for green eyes, they are associated with jealousy after Iago’s words: “It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on” (Othello, II, i. 165).

II. According to the way of nomination meanings are divided into direct (primary, proper meaning) and indirect (figurative, transferred, secondary, derived).

Direct meaning is the meaning which characterizes the referent without the help of a context, in isolation (to query = ‘to ask a question’).

Indirect meaning is the meaning formed from the direct meaning according to the models of semantic derivation (metaphor, metonymy). It is realized only in definite contexts: to query the bill = ‘to express one's doubts about the charge’; a good head for figures / per head (metonymy).

In their turn direct meanings are divided into extended (general) and narrow (special).

General meaning is the meaning correlating to generic concept: ship = ‘a vessel’.

Narrow meaning is the meaning correlating to specific concept: ship = ‘nautical a large sailing vessel with three or more square-rigged masts’.

According to connection with referents direct meanings are divided into concrete and abstract.

Concrete meanings indicate at a referent: tongue (the body organ of taste).

Abstract meanings indicate at quality features in the abstract from referents: tongue (speech).

III. According to frequency meanings are divided into main (primary, central) and secondary (peripheric).

Main meaning is the meaning which possesses the highest frequency at the present stage of vocabulary development. For the noun table the first meaning is the main one: ‘a piece of furniture’ – 52%; ‘an orderly arrangement of facts’ (table of contents) – 35%, other meanings – 13% of the uses of this word.

Secondary meanings are less frequent.

IV. According to their genetic characteristic (in diachrony) meanings are divided into etymological, original, archaic, obsolete and present-day.

Etymological meaning is the earliest known meaning. Today the noun urchin means “a mischievous roguish child, esp. one who is young, small, or raggedly dressed”, but its etymological meaning is ‘a hedgehog’.

Archaic meaning is the meaning superseded at present by a newer one but still remaining in certain collocations. The archaic meaning of the adjective brave is “fine, excellent, admirable”. Its use is limited to some phrases among which is a brave new world. Another example is the quick and the dead or Time and tide wait for no man (≈ время не ждёт).

Obsolete meaning is the meaning which went out of use. The obsolete meaning of the verb taste is “to examine by touch, to feel; to test or try”.

Original meaning is a meaning serving as basis for the derived ones. The original meaning if the word land is “soil, hard territory”, as opposed to water.

Present-day meaning is a meaning which is most frequent in the present-day language: quick = “lasting a comparatively short time; brief”.

V. According to the style and sphere of language in which they may occur meanings are divided into stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured.

Neutral meanings are found in the words of general use: to begin, father.

Stylistically coloured meanings mark a certain style, and in their turn are divided into bookish and colloquial, for example, dad is a colloquial word and to commence is a literary word. Bookish meanings can be poetical, scientific or learned, literary. Colloquial meanings can be literary colloquial, familiar colloquial, slang.

VI. According to realization of meaning in language system meanings are divided into dictionary and speech.

Dictionary meanings are registered in dictionaries, they are most frequent ones.

Speech meanings are revealed in speech, they are seldom found in dictionaries.

According to their combinability language meanings are divided into and free (context-independent) and bound (context-dependent).

Free meanings are realized in free word combinations and associated with the given lingual sign: to settle (урегулировать), small (маленький).

Bound meanings depend on the grammatical form or lexical components of the word-combination they enter: to meet smb’s demand/ requirement, to settle the bill/ debt (платить); small passions (мелочный), small trickery (мелкий), small cold (слабый), small wind (тихий), small (слабый) current.

Speech meanings are also divided into usual and occasional (nonce words).

Usual meanings intersect dictionary meanings.

Occasional meanings occur in words invented and used for a particular occasion. Consider the following: “Ellen relaxed her about-to-push hand and looked at him” (I. Levin) or “Germany is the world’s largest goods exporter after China despite high labour costs and a strongish euro” (Economist 25/10/2010).

Meanings are analysed with the help of componential analysis.

Componential analysis is the investigation method which proceeds from the assumption that word meaning can be decomposed into elementary semantic components, or semantic features/ semes.

Seme is the smallest unit of meaning. For instance, the meaning of the word boy can be represented with the help of the following semes: ‘human’, ‘male’, ‘non-adult’. Wife can be analyzed into the following semes ‘human’, ‘female’, ‘adult’, ‘married’.

Componential analysis bases itself on differential oppositions like the below ones.

man : woman = boy : girl = bull : cow – sex

man : boy = woman : girl = cow : calf – age

man : bull = woman : cow = girl : calf – human / non-human beings

Differential oppositions can be easily applied to such clear-cut semantic groups as terms of kinship or words denoting colours, but they are hard to distinguish for other classes of words. It’s a certain limitation of the method.

There exist different models of componential analysis. One of them is showed in Table 2. It consists in forcing all features into a binary pattern, when two opposing sides to a single feature are represented as ‘plus’ (if the feature is present in the meaning of the word) and ‘minus’ (if the feature in question is absent).

Table 2.

Semantic features Words	with a back	raised above ground	for one person	to sit on	with arms	of solid material
chair	+	+	+	+	–	+
armchair	+	+	+	+	+	+
stool	–	+	+	+	–	+
sofa	+	+	–	+	+	+
pouffe	–	+	+	+	–	–

The next model of componential analysis suggests that meanings are analysed in terms of semantic markers and distinguishers.

Semantic marker (integral seme) is a semantic feature which the word has in common with other lexical items. Semantic markers reflect systemic relations between the word and the rest of the vocabulary.

Semantic distinguisher (differential seme) is a semantic feature which differentiates the word from all other words or which differentiates individual meanings of a polysemantic word. Distinguishers reflect what is idiosyncratic about the word.

For example, the semantics of the word bachelor can be represented with the help of the following markers (they are enclosed in round brackets) and distinguishers (they are enclosed in square brackets):

1) (human) (male) [one who has never been married];

2) (human) (male) [young knight serving under the standard of another knight];

3) (human) [one who has the first or lowest academic degree];

4) (animal) (male) [young fur seal without a mate in the breeding season].

Acquiring this specific information about the word meanings is the main aim of the analysis under consideration. This information is of much value when the translator chooses the appropriate synonym. Compare all shades of meanings of the verbs of motion, showed in Table 3.

Table 3.

Synonyms	Common feature	Differential feature	Translation
stroll	“to walk”	“unhurriedly, leisurely”	прогуливаться (медленно и праздно)
stagger	“to walk”	“unsteadily”	идти шатаясь
pace	“to walk”	“with slow regular steps”	шагать
roam	“to walk”	“without a definite aim”	бродить
saunter	“to walk”	“in a leisurely way”	прогуливаться (медленно, неторопливо)

So, the semantic distinguisher differentiates between the meanings of different words.

Besides, awareness of the integral seme promotes translation of the unknown meanings of the polysemantic word. In fact, derived meanings have common integral semes with the main meaning. Translate the following figurative meanings of the word sharp considering its direct meaning, that is “having a very thin edge or point that can cut things easily [≠ blunt]”:

sharp voice, sound, intake of breath

sharp feelings, pain,

sharp flavour, taste, cheddar cheese

sharp mind, intelligence

a sharp suit, clothes

a sharp nose, features

a sharp increase in prices, fall in unemployment.

All the meanings are united or bound by the integral seme deep (cutting) of the direct meaning, that is knife – with a fine cutting edge, not blunt.

Semes can be explicit and implicit (potential). The explicit seme in the verb to woo is ‘try to gain the love of (a woman), especially with a view to marriage’, and the implicit seme in the phrase to woo Japanese palates [customers] is ‘seek the favor, support, or custom of somebody’.