- •The subjectivity of utterance
- •10.0 Introduction
- •10.1 Refer e n c e
- •296 The subjectivity of utterance
- •298 The subjectivity of utterance
- •300 The subjectivity of utterance
- •302 The subjectivity of utterance
- •304 The subjectivity of utterance
- •306 The subjectivity of utterance
- •308 The subjectivity of utterance
- •310 The subjectivity of utterance
- •312 The subjectivity of utterance
- •314 The subjectivity of utterance
- •316 The subjectivity of utterance
- •318 The subjectivity of utterance
- •320 The subjectivity of utterance
- •322 The subjectivity of utterance
- •324 The subjectivity of utterance
- •326 The subjectivity of utterance
- •328 The subjectivity of utterance
- •330 The subjectivity of utterance
- •332 The subjectivity of utterance
- •334 The subjectivity of utterance
- •336 The subjectivity of utterance
- •338 The subjectivity of utterance
- •340 The subjectivity of utterance
- •342 The subjectivity of utterance
- •Suggestions for further reading
- •Bibliography
- •329 In correspondence with
- •144 Meaning-postulates, 102, 126 7
- •Value, 205 variables, 113
144 Meaning-postulates, 102, 126 7
and inference, 221
and sense-relations, 124 30 meaningful sentences, and meaningless
sentences, 1 31 52 meaningfulness, 12,72
grammatically and acceptability, 132 4
and meaninglessness, 215 21
of sentences, 134 8 medium, 9, 34, 246 medium-neutral terms, 34 medium-transferable, 36 Menomini, 191 mental grammar, 73
mental lexicon, 73, 100 mental models, 231 mentalistic theory of meaning, 40 metalanguage, 611,77
definition, 7
technical and everyday metalanguage, 324 6 metalinguistic expressions, 80-1 metalinguistics, 1-45 metaphor, 136, 280 4
bibliography, 346 metaphorical extension, 59 60 metaphorical interpretation, 280-4
and context of situation, 290 metaphysical dualism, 336-7 metonymy, 136 mistranslation, 274 modal, use of term, 255 modal auxiliaries, 319 modal component of (actuality, 255 modal expressions, modality and mood,
327 35 modal logic, 118, 1 74 5, 254, 302, 335
bibliography, 345 modal particles, and conventional
implicature, 274-5 modal verbs, 179 80 modality, 255, 293, 327
bibliography, 345
and indexicality, 233
modal expressions and mood, 327 35
and quantification, 328-9, 335
and subjectivity, 274
and temporality, 31819 model theory, 224 5, 232-3, 294, 341-2 modulate(tl), 14, 181 Montague, Richard, 199,201,208,221,
228 9
Montague grammar, 199, 209, 221-6,
229 33,294 5 comparison with Ghomskyan
generative grammar, 222 4 comparison with Katz-Fodor theory,
221 2 and truth-conditional semantics,
224 6 Montague semantics, 160, 329
bibliography, 345 mood, 74, 176, 202, 255, 293 bibliography, 345 clause-type and sentence-type,
176-82
connexion with sentence-type,
177--80. 332
as a grammatical category, or as mood of a proposition, 255-6 and interrogativity, 191-3 modal expressions and modality,
327-35 relationship with tense, 275, 319,
332-3
and sentence-type, 253 tense and aspect, 195-7 uses of term, 327 and verbal inflection, 1 79-80 morpheme-based grammar, 48, 66, 72 morphologically synthetic languages,
31,313
morphology, 105; bibliography, 345 morphosyntactic identity, 56 morphosyntactic properties of a word,
24 morphosyntactically distinct forms,
53 morse-code, 34
naive realism, 90-1, 98, 324 names, 295 narrower scope, 175 native speakers, 134-5, 308-9
difference between homonymy and
polysemy, 58-60 intuitive judgements of meaningfulness, 148 unconscious rules and conventions,
9-10 natural kind expressions, theory of
(Putnam and Kripke), 92-3 natural kinds, 76 7, 89-90, 91-6, 325 natural languages, 6
descriptive and expressive powers of,
209
formal semantics of, 201 naming in, 295 semantic structure of, 209 spalin-temporal deixis in, 306-7 without tense, 31 2 natural necessity, 121 2 natural sign, 3 near-synonyms, 60 2 necessarily, uses of term, 121 necessarily true or false proposition,
117,118 necessity, 327-9, 333-5
definition of, 329 negation, 150,162, 169-76 bibliography, 345 prepositional, 328 negation-operator, 109, 1 73 negative indefinite pronouns, 172 neo-Gricean pragmatics, 277, 280,
292
bibliography, 345 neuropsychology, 73, 211 nominal negation, 171 nominalism, 82, 92 non-arbitrariness, 13-15 non-conventional behaviour, 13 non-declarative sentences, 185, 193-8,
224
non-deictic information, 307-10 non-descriptive meaning, 44, 64-5,
130
non-detachability, 289 non-factual significance, and emotivism,
144-5 non-human communicative behaviour,
12-13
non-indicative sentences, 224 non-inflecting languages, 67 non-intentional behaviour, 13 non-isolating synthetic languages, 31 non-lexical meaning xv, 104 non-linguistic semantics, 11-16, 101 non-natural metalanguages, 9 non-progressive aspectual distinction,
195 non-propositional meaning, xiii, xiv,
8,44,203,291-2 neglect of, 336, 338 non-verbal component of natural
language utterances, 10,14, 36 non-words, 46 notational conventions, 9-10
for distinguishing word form and
meaning, 23-30 noun classes, bibliography, 345 noun-headed noun-phrases, 296-7 noun-phrases (NP), 296 7
quantified, 300-1
nuclear extension, 94, 96-7, 116 number, 74
object-words, and dictionary-words, 83 objective deontic interpretation, 330
370 Index
Index 371
objective epistemic interpretation, 329,330
objective modality, 329 30,333 4
objectivism, 336, 338
of the world, 1 19,232
Ogden,G.K.,86
Old English, 180
one-place predicates 112
one-to-one correspondence, 10, 142,229
onomatopoeic, 13
ontological assumptions, 4, 142, 148,
188,281-2,308 ontology, relationship with semantics,
82,323-5
opaque contexts, 230 1 open-class word-forms, 66 optative sentences, 176, 181 ordinary-language metalinguistic
statements, 10-11 ordinary-language philosophy, 43, 140,
236-7
ordinary-metalanguage, 22, 324-6 orthographic form, 53 orthographic identity, 30 ostension, 83, 304 ostensive definition, 83 5, 94, 304
paradigmatic sense-relations, 124 paradoxes of implication, 167-8 paralinguistic features, 14, 15, 19,
256,340
paralinguistic subcomponent, 36 />arok,20,21,234 partial homonymy, 55 8 partial synonymy, 60 2 particles, 313 parts of speech, 68 past tense, 56, 31415
and non-past tense, 319 past-participle form, 56 Peirce, C.S., 303
type/token distinction, 49, 53 perfective aspect, 323 4 performance xiii, 21 2, 35, 234, 236 performative utterances, 144, 184,
238 9
performative verbs, 248 51 person, 74 personal names, one-to-one
correspondence with their bearers, 142
personal pronouns, 302, 303 4, 305,
306,307,309 persons, distinguished from individuals,
257
phatic act, 245
phenomenal attributes, 85, 88, 94 philosophical semantics, 6
bibliography, 346 philosophy, 232-3 bibliography, 346 and word definitions, 83-9 philosophy of language xiii, 5, 185, 272 phonetic identity, 30-1, 243-4 phonetics, 9-10, 248 phonic act, 245 phonological form, 53 phonological identity, 30 1 phonological representations (PR),
211,212
phonology, 105, 222 phrasal expressions, 50, 51 phrasal negation, 290 phrase-structure ambiguity, 207 phrases, 50 picks out, 228 place-names, 142 plain English, pseudo-simplicity of
xv-xvi, 54
pluperfect tense, 314-15 plus sign, 129 point of reference, 227 polarity, 170
politeness, 252, 279, 291, 300 polysemy, 48, 58, 266
compared with homonymy, 58 60 Popper, Karl, 141 popular etymology, 59 posed, 254 positivism, 281 possibility, 327 9, 333 5
definition of, 329 possible worlds, 118 19,122,169,
209,225,226 33,295, 329 accessibility between, 341 and entail men t, 117 24 tense-operators as indices to, 316 17 uses of term, 231-2 possible-world semantics, 199, 232 post-Bloomfieldian structuralism, 65,
66,105 6 Postal, P.M., 186 postpositions, 326
pragmatics, 8, 22, 44, 202, 233, 238,
252,276,286,307,342 bibliography, 345 distinction from semantics xii-xiii,
2H3, 290, 308
pre-rnodern linguistics, 102 predicate calculus, 318 predicate logic, 295 predicate-negation, 1 70 predicates, 73, 295 prepositions, 326 present tease, 57, 313, 314 present-tense operators, 316 presuppositions, 189-90, 276, 280,
298 9
primary deixis, 310 primary performatives, 238, 239 primary tense, 318 principle of co-operation, 277 process, 21-2 process-sense, 35, 235 product-sense, 35, 235 productive rules, 51 products of a system, 18, 20, 21-2 progressive aspectual distinction, 195 projection-rules 209, 215, 219 21
and selection-restrictions, 215-21 promises, 237-8, 248-9, 251, 257 pronouns, 296
negative indefinite, 172
reference of, 302-11 proper names, 295
relationship with the entities to which
they refer, 142-3 properties, essential and accidental,
99 100
property-denoting words, 1 12 prepositional content, 147, 215
aspect and,322
and context, 266-7
propositions and, 141-4,268
and sentence-meaning. 103, 153-98,
234 prepositional meaning xiii, 8, 44,
63 5
propositionalizing, 271, 331, 336 propositions, 44, 103. 117 18, 141
compared with utterar ce-inscriptions, 241 2
criteria for, 141
and propositional content, 141-4, 268
relationship with sentences, 141-4
truth and falsity of, 327-9 prosodic contour, 36, 45, 165, 270,
340 relationship with grammatical
structure, 181-2 prosodic features, 14, 256 prosodic structure, 156-7, 171, 181-2,
253,256
of spoken English, bibliography, 345 prosodic subcomponent, 36 prototypes, 94, 96 prototypical sense, 116 proximate tense, and non-proximate
tense, 314, 315
proximate-tense operators, 316 proximity, in deixis, 310 psycholinguistics, 97, 100, 211, 248, 309 psychological semantics, 6 psychology, 73 punctuate(d), 14,181 punctuation marks, 10, 14 pure deixis, 307 8 pure tense, 318 purporting, 143 4 Putnam, Hilary, 92 3 Putnam-Kripke natural-kind
expressions, 121
quality, 277, 278-9, 300 quantification, and modality, 328-9,
335
quantified noun-phrases, 300-1 quantifiers, 287-8, 296, 335
aspect and,326
universal and existential, 328 quantity, 277-8 questions, 38, 176,251
statements and directives, 253-7 Quine,W.V., 123,281 quotation-marks, 9, 10
rationalism, 86
re-definition, 8
reading, suggestions for further, 343-6
realism
naive, 90 1,98, 324
philosophical, 82, 90 1,92 recursive negation, 169 70 refer to,79,295, 299 reference, 9, 76, 78 80, 293, 294-302, 325
372 Index
Index 373
reference (continued)
distinguished from denotation, 78-80, 228-9
and existence, 299
mediated by denotation and context, 228-9
and reference range, 268
and sense, 204, 225 referential meaning, 44 referential opacity, 301 referential potential, 268 referential range, 294 referential theory of meaning, 40,
7fj--6, 78-9 reflexivity, 7 regiment, 7, 8 regimentation, 7- 8 Reichenbach, Hans, 140 reification, 325 6
relatedness of meaning, 28 9,58 60 relation, 102,277,279 relative tense, 314 15 relevance, 168, 2B<> relevance theory, bibliography, 345 relevant, 264, 283 remote tense, and non-remote tense,
314,315
remote-tense operators, 316 represented, 119 restricted variable, 187 9 reversed-polarity interrogative*, 187 rhetic act, 245 rhetoric, 65
rhetorical question, 181 2 rhythm, 10, 171 Roget, P.M., Thesaurus, 60, 86 Romance languages, 19, 180 rule-to-rule hypothesis, 159 60,
207-8,230 Russell, Bertrand, 67, 83 4, 85, 86, 88,
107, 135,208 Russian, 412, 67, 166, 275, 296, 309
aspect in, 320, 323 Ryle, Gilbert, 135, 140, 145
saliency, out-of-context, 267 salvaveritate, intersubstitutability, 230 Sapir, Edward, 90, 97, 106 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 90, 97, 106 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 19, 90, 124, 234 saving the appearances, 92, 185, 198, 202, 204 9
scalar implicatures, 288 scope
of expressions, 207
of interrogativity, 189 90
of negation, 173 5 Searle, J.R.,236 second-order count nouns, 325 second-order entities, 326 7 second-order reference, 325-6 secondary deixis, 310 1 1, 332 secondary grammatical category, 74 selection-restrictions, 209, 216 17, 218
and projection-rules, 21521 self, 337-9
self-expression, 45, 337-40 self-image, 45 semantic acceptability, 37 semantic entailment, 121 3 semantic fields, 102 semantic markers (Katz-Fodor), 220 semantic neutrality, 331 semantic prototypes, theory of, 77,
96 101
semantic representations (SR), 209, 211,212,219
criticisms of, 220-1
and deep structure, 209 15 semantic rules, 215 semantically unrelated, 28 semanticity, 12, 13 semantics
broad and narrow definitions, 8
distinguished from pragmatics xii-xiii, 283,290, 308
in the narrow sense, 8
relationship with ontology, 323-5 semi-grammatical elements, 313 semiotic semantics, 104 semiotics, 303 sense, 8, 76, 80 1
distinguished from denotation, 77 82, 93, 100-1,204
and reference, 204, 225 sense-component, 108, 219 20, 223 sense-relations, 79 80, 102, 124
and meaning-postulates, 124-30 sentence
uses of term, 243
uses of term in abstract and concrete
senses, 258-9, 260-1 sentence-fragments, 261
sentence-identity, 156 sentence-kernel, 205, 211 sentence-meaning, 8, 33, 105-6 conflicts with utterance-meaning,
181-2
distinguished from utterance-meaning, 34 40,44-5, 144, 171, 259,340-1 distinguished from word-meaning,
33 4
the formalizaiion of, 199 233 integration with lexical meaning, 103 and lexical meaning, 43 logical priority over word-meaning,
69 71, 103 and propositional content, 103,
153-98,201-2,203,234 sentence-negation, 290 sentence-radical expression, 205 sentence-semantics, xv, 125
bibliography, 344-5 sentence-type, 176, 202
clause-type and mood, 1 76-82 connexion with mood, 1 77-80, 253 distinguished from mood, 332 sentences
classes of, 38-9 distinguished from utterance-inscriptions, 246 distinguished from utterances xiii,
32 40, 71,234-40 meaningful and meaningless, 131-52 and non-sentences, 37 propositional content xiv relationship with clauses, 161-2 relationship with propositions, 141-4 relationship with utterances, 260 Serrano, 191
set-theoretic function, 112 set-theory. 111 12, 228 sign, 3 signals, 35 signifies, 3 simple sentences, 157
and composite sentences, 157-62 single quotation-marks, 24, 33, 108,
262
Sinn(Frege),204, 225 Siouan family of languages, 178, 181 situation, 270
technical use of the term, 322 situations, 324
Slavonic languages, 320, 323
social and expressive meaning, 275, 276,
291-2
social meaning, 45 social pragmatics, 238, 292 socialization, 257 socio-cultural bias, 132 3, 291 socio-expressive meaning, 45, 64-5,
256-7,309-10
sociolinguistics, 133, 252, 309 sortal categories, 297 8 sortal presupposition, 298 sound, and meaning, 21112 South-East Asian languages, 309 Spanish, 19,41,42, 186,309 spatial reference, modelling of temporal
reference on, 326 7
spatio-temporal deixis, 304-7, 310, 31 1 speaker see locutionary agent speech act, use of term, 235-6, 245 speech acts, 235 6
and illocutionary force, 234-57 speech acts theory (Austin), 43, 145, 234 57,265,292, 339
compared with truth-conditional
semantics, 257 spoken language, 9, 23, 181-2
and written language, 36-7, 236 spoken text, and written text, 258 stand for, 79 Standard English, 7 statements, 38, 176, 251-2
questions and directives, 253-7 stem-form, 25 stress, 10, 156-7 stress-pattern, 14, 36, 244 strict implication, 169, 281 strings, 36, 156,243
subsets of, 137
structural approach, 102-30 structural lexical semantics, 102 structural linguistic semantics, 104 structural linguistics, 102, 105-7 structural morphology, 102 structural phonology, 102 structural semantics, 103-7
definition, 104-5
use of term, 105 structural word, 66 structuralism, 90-1, 102, 103, 104,
105 structure, 102
374 Index
Index 375
'Structure of a semantic theory, The'
(Katz and Kodor),209, 220 stylistirs, 44, 65 subcategori/ation, strict (Chomsky),
218
subject-predicate structure, 73, 338 subjective, 178 9
pejorative interpretation of the term,
16,335-7
subjective deontic modality, 330 subjective epistemic modality, 330-1,
334,341 subjective modality, 179 80, 311,
330-41 subjectivity, 257
in aspectual representations, 321, 324
of consciousness, 311
and locutionary agency, 336-42
and modality, 274
and mood, 255 6
use of term, 336 40 subjectivity of utterance, 293,
294 342
subjunctive, 176, 177 8, 181 subordination, 159 subscripts, to distinguish several
meanings of a word, 26 9 substitutional sense-relations, 124,
125-30
surface structure, 211, 222 Sweet, Henry, 65 symbol, 3 symbols, list of xvii symmetrical hyponymy, 127-8 syncategorematic forms, 71 2 synecdoche, 136 synonymous expressions, 60 5 synonymy, 48, 60 5, 289 syntactic differences, 53 Syntactic Structures (Chomsky), 210, 211 syntactic theory, 160 1, 162 syntagmatic sense-relations, 124 syntax, 105
synthetic proposition, 120, 127 system, 18,20,21-2 system-process-product
trichotomy, 22, 234 system-product ambiguity, 18 system-sentences, 259, 260
T/V distinction, 309-10 tabula rasa empiricism, 84, 98
tag-intcrrogativcs, 187 tautologies, 149, 280
and contradictions, 149-52 temporal properties, encoding in
different languages, 323-7 temporal reference, modelling on spatial
reference, 326 7 temporality
and modality, 318-19
and tense, 318 tense, 74, 195, 202, 293
aspect and mood, 195-7
bibliography, 345
comparable with the definite article and demonstratives, 316-17
confusion with aspect, 320-3
and definiteness of reference, 318
as a grammatical category, 196-7, 312 20
relationship with mood, 275, 319, 332 3
traditional definitions of, 313-14
use of term, 312 tense-distinctions, 31415 tense-logic, 197,315-17,333 tense-operators, 316 tense-systems, 306, 314-16
multi-level, 314-15
three-term, 314
two-level, J14-16 text
conversation and discourse, 32-40
definition of a text, 262-4
definition of text, 264-5
and discourse, 258-92
semantics of, bibliography, 346
use of the word, 34 text-sentences 259 60, 261 2 text-units, 261 thematic meaning, 154 7 theme, 154
theoretical linguistics, 203 theoretical semantics, 307 theory-independence, 244 theory-neutral, 67, 82, 236, 247-8 thought, and language, 90, 97 three-place (lexical) converse, 129 tokens, 49, 244, 246 traditional grammar, 54, 91, 160 transfer of meaning, 60 transform, 161
transformational rules, absence in
Montague grammar, 222-3 transformational-generative grammar, Chomsky 160, 161, 186, 199,205, 210-12 Fig., 7.1 transformations, 211
do not affect meaning, 213 translatability, 139 40, 141
and corrigibility, 138-40 translation
and conventional implicature, 275
one-to-one correspondence, 41-2
truth-based theories of the meaning of
sentences, 131-2 truth-by-correspondence, 232 truth-conditional equivalence, 63, 148 truth-conditional semantics, 69-71,
153-4, 164,272,276,300 compared with speech act theory, 257 limitations of xiv, 338, 342 and Montague grammar, 224-6 and possible worlds, 226-33 truth-conditional theory, 40, 44, 131, 132, 144, 146-9, 182, 185,201, 202,342 truth-conditionality, 230-1
and literal or metaphorical sense,
282-3 truth-conditions, 146-9, 154, 301
and truth-values, 131 truth-functional propositions, 162,
164-7,205,329 truth-functionality, 162-76 truth-in-a-model, 224 truth-under-an-interpretation, 224 truth-values, 118, 120, 121, 146, 225,
301
and truth-conditions, 131 truthfulness, 278, 300 tulusted distinction see T/V distinction tuji'ou.s distinction see T/V distinction Turkish, 181 turn-taking, 252 two-place converses, 129 two-place relations, 113 type/token distinction. 49, 53, 176 type/token identity, 49, 244-5 type(s), 49, 244, 246 typographical conventions xvii
universal grammar, 21
universal quantification, necessity and,
335 universal sense components, 106, 108-9,
114-16
universal speech acts, 251-2 universality assumptions, 108-17, 126 use, distinction from meaning xiii, 43 use of sentences, 144 use theory of meaning, 144 utterance
subjectivity of, 293-342 use of the term, 34, 35, 243 utterance-dependent, 79 utterance-independent, 79 utterance-inscriptions, 35, 136, 165,
259-60, 340
compared with propositions, 241-2 distinguished from sentences, 246 utterances and the production of,
242-3
utterance-meaning, 8, 34 bibliography, 345 conflicts with sentence-meaning,
181-2
and context, 265-71 context-dependency of, 37-8 distinguished from sentence-meaning,
34-40,44 5,144,171,259, 340-1 utterance-semantics xv utterance-signals, 35 utterances, 235-40
distinguished from sentences xiii,
32-40,71,234-40 and production of utterance-inscriptions, 242-3 relationship with sentences, 260 utterer's meaning, 42