28. Grammaticalization of the Progressive in Early Modern English

The Early Modern English period is particularly important to the development of the progressive, because it was at this time that the progressive began to be grammaticalized (required), and no longer merely an expression of style. Rissanen (210) declares that it was in early Modern English that the be + ing progressive forms were solidified. Barbara Strang asserts that “the rules for use of the progressive had already been established … in the seventeenth century” (“Aspects” 429), although even in the 1800s, Denison notes many examples that do not conform to the present practice.

Nonetheless, a major trend grammaticalizing the progressive is visible in the eighteenth century. Strang explains that, during the first half of the eighteenth century, the progressive verb occurred mainly in subordinate clauses; however, while use of the progressive grew in general in the second half of the century, it grew most rapidly in main clauses. The general growth continued in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but even greater was this growth in main clauses as the progressive gained grammatical consistency (Strang “Aspects” 441-2, Denison "Syntax" 144). Denison, referring to Dennis and Arnaud, estimates that the use of the progressive has roughly doubled every century since 1500, with a slow-down in the 18th century, but a “three-fold increase” in the 1900s (“Syntax” 143). It is likely then, from the rates of increase of use of the progressive, as well as the pattern of decline of confusion between the simple and progressive tenses, that grammaticalization of the progressive verb was largely complete by the end of the nineteenth century, with some residual effects of confusion running over into the very early twentieth century.

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32. Изменение словарного запаса слова в ранненовоанглийском

The end of the Middle English period cannot be determined by a single political or military event like the one used to mark its beginning. Instead scholars refer to key developments which led to much standardisation in English and established the linguistic hegemony of London over the entire country (the dialect found here is derived directly from the East Midland dialect of Middle English).

One of these developments is the rise of a written standard: Already at the end of the 14th century there were a group of non-clerical scribes who used a conventionalised orthography. By the mid 15th century this form was accepted for official usage. Above all the language of the Chancery, an official department in London which prepared documents for the court, played a considerable role in the emergence of a written standard (Fisher 1977). The Chancery was responsible for legal and parliamentary documents as well as for those which were written on the commission of the king. The Chancery recruited its scribes from all parts of England and had its seat at Westminister (from the middle of the 14th century). Because of the diverse backgrounds of those employed there, a linguistic norm was all the more necessary. (see section on Dialects in the Linguistic Levels menu).

The second important development was the introduction of printing by William Caxton (c.1422-91), a merchant, and later a writer, who set up the first printing press in England in 1476. He established his base at Westminster and during his career as publisher produced more than 90 editions of well-known and lesser known authors. The necessity for having a single means of spelling English was obvious in days when printing was expensive and time-consuming.

The major figure at the beginning of what one can call the early modern period is, of course, Shakesspeare and there is a special section on his language in the current group of options (see last item in present menu). Other dramatists, such as Christopher Marlowe (1564-93), tend to be eclipsed by the towering figure of Shakespeare.

Christopher Marlowe

After Chaucer and Shakespeare one can no longer talk of the course of English being influenced by a single author. Thus the current section just offers a brief overview of groups of authors who produced much literature in English and so contributed to the general development of the written language without, however, steering its course.