44. What new ideas did the War of Independence bring? What were the revolutionary changes in art in the 18th century?

Other events also marked the reign of George 3. A second act of union was forced in 1801 bringing Ireland under the umbrella of Great Briton. The cross of saint Patrick the patron saint on Ireland was added to the Crosses of saint George and saint Andrew on the British flag. The flag of the new country became known as the union flag or Union Jack.In 1807 slave trade was abolished. The king built a magnificent library and a great collection of pictures, a brilliant galaxy of writers and poets wrote their works. Wordsworth, Byron, Shelly, Keats, Austen. Painting was equal to the achievements of literature. Landscape painting produced two genius: Turner, Constable. The artists and writers looked for inspiration to nature, to emotions and to the spirit of freedom. It was a revolution in the arts which was a part of social and political changes in the world.

William Turner 1775-1851 was an English romantic landscape painter, watercolorist and printmaker whose style have laid the start of impressionism.

Turner was only fourteen years old when he was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools. He started his career by painting watercolours and producing mezzotints thenhe launched into oil painting, working in the neoclassical manner.

He was elected an Associate in 1799 and in 1802 a full member of the Royal Academy. Turner was one of the most prolific painters of his time. He traveled extensively in England, Scotland and Ireland, and also on the Continent (France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Italy).

In 1802, he visited Paris for the first time, where he studied the Old Masters in the Louvre , above all Dutch seascapes and Claude Lorrain's compositions, which lastingly influenced him.

Turner's first private showing, at his own house, took place in 1804.

During this period, thanks to the increasing concentration on the atmospheric effects of light, his original style began to evolve, a process that culminated during trips to Italy between 1819 and 1829.

Turner's watercolours and oil sketches were based on impressions of nature. In his atmospheric depictions of shipwrecks and natural disasters such as The Shipwreck (1805), Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps (1812), Fire at Sea (1835 reality and fantasy merge and colour is used to metaphorically evoke the power of natural phenomena.

This achievement was to be especially influential on XX century art.

45. What is the Industrial Revolution? Why did it begin in Britain? What branches of industry were progressing in the 18th century?

The Industrial Revolution began in England in the early 18th century for the following reasons:

1. England had experienced all of the forerunners of industrialization in the previous century: an agricultural revolution, cottage industry, and an expanded commercial revolution. These developments had built an infrastructure (shipping, banking, insurance, joint stock companies).

2. England already had a handcraft textile industry using wool, but with the availability of cotton from overseas markets as an alternative raw material.

3. The scientific revolution in England prepared the way for new inventions to be applied to industry.

4. A spreading shortage of wood (used for energy, for shipbuilding and construction) stimulated a search for alternatives.

5. England was rich in supplies of coal for energy and iron for construction.

6. England had a long, irregular coastline with many rivers and natural harbors which provided easy transportation by water to many areas.

7. England's population grew rapidly in the 18th century, providing a labor force for industry.

Textile Industry: The textile industry had a progress because of the serious of inventions which together with factory organization and capitalists control insured its rapid growth to become the leading industrial center from the 1740’s. Textile factories exported cotton cloth to sell all over Europe and Manchester became the center of coring textile industry.

In the interim, weavers were well paid, until displaced by the power loom.

Thus, the employment market was dramatically changed twice in a short period of time by the process of industrialization.

Energy: The shortage of trees for lumber had led to the use of coal for heating, but coal mines constantly flooded. Newcomen's steam engine, invented in 1705, was an inefficient but acceptable method of pumping water out of the mines. It could not, however, generate power.

In the early 1760's through the 1780's, James Watt improved the design of the steam engine so that it could generate power. This was the most important of all the inventions of the time because it enabled coal to be burned to drive machinery.

In the 1780's Henry Cort developed the puddling furnace (which used coke (produced from coal)), and steam-powered rolling mills. These developments revitalized the iron industry.

All of the above developments were to change the source of energy from wood to coal, and the preferred construction material from wood to iron.

These are hallmarks of industrialization.

Transportation: Iron rails were developed for coal carts to be hauled to nearby water transport. The combination of iron rails and the steam engine to transport people and goods was the railroad. This was the greatest achievement in transportation since ancient times.

It made a market economy possible.