Grammatika_Saakyan

THE PAST PROGRESSIVE

I. The Past Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Simple Past, and Participle I of the notional verb.

• I was working. They were reading.

The same auxiliary, verb is used in the interrogative and negative forms.

•Were you working? Was he reading?

We were not working. He was not reading.

II. The Past Progressive is used:

1.to express an action which was going on at a given moment in the past. In some cases, there is no indication of a given past moment. It is implied in the situation. Sometimes it is indicated with the help of another action in the Simple Past, or by stating the precise time: at the moment, now, etc.

• You were sleeping when I left.

At that very moment she was phoning the police.

2.to express an action going on at a given period of time in the past.

The indication of the past period of time is understood from the context or is given in the sentence.

•— What were you doing in Paris? — I was trying to find a publisher for my new book for half a year.

3. to express an action generally characterizing the person denoted by the subject, bringing out his (her) typical traits. Often, always, constantly are found in such cases in the sentence. Such sentences are emotionally coloured.

•This child was always getting coughs and colds! She was constantly suffering from a cut or a burn.

4. with verbs which are not usually used in the progressive form when they change their meaning and are used to characterise the person's unusual behaviour at the given past moment.

•He was being kind to us. She was only being nice. He was happy now that his wife was feeling better.

5. in the subordinate clause of a complex sentence introduced by the conjunction while. (The Simple Past can be used in these clauses as well.) The Simple Past is normally used in the principal clause.

•She sat still while he was playing the sonata. While he stood there he heard the telephone ring.

THE PAST PERFECT

I. The Past Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Past and Participle II of the notional verb.

• I had worked. We had met. She had seen it.

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The same auxiliary verb is used in the interrogative and the negative forms.

•Had you worked? They hadn't come.

II. The Past Perfect is mainly found in narration and in past-time contexts.

1. The Past Perfect is used to express an action completed before a given past moment. The time of the action maybe indicated by a phrase or by another past action.

•She was no fool. She had read much in several languages, and she could talk of the books she had read with good sense.

2.The Past Perfect serves to express an action which began before a given past moment and continues into it or up to it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Past Perfect Progressive. The Past Perfect is found with the verbs not used in the progressive tense forms. This use is associated with certain time indications: either a whole period of duration

of the action is indicated (for) or its starting point (since).

•He told me he had been badly ill since he (had) returned from abroad. He mentioned that he had not played tennis for three years.

Note: In clauses of time introduced by since the Simple Past is commonly used, though the Past Perfect is also possible.

3. The Past Perfect is often used in combination with the Past Progressive when both actions are viewed from the same past moment. One action is completed before that past implied moment while the other is still in progress.

•The sky had cleared and the moon was shining on the snow. She had done the work and was watching television.

4.The Past Perfect is found in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions scarcely... when, hardly... when, nearly... when, no sooner... than. The action of the subordinate clause takes place when the action of the principal clause is hardly completed yet. Such sentences are emphatic in meaning and the word order in them is inverted.

•Hardly had I gone a hundred yards when I noticed a car behind me. No sooner had she opened the door than she saw a stranger.

THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

I. The Past Perfect Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Perfect and Participle I of the notional verb.

• I had been working. He had been reading.

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In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

• Had you been working? Had he been reading?

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

• We had not been working. They had not been working.

II. The Past Perfect Progressive serves to express:

1. an action which began before a given-past moment and continued into it or up to it

(the inclusive or the durative type).

• She suddenly realized that it was now completely dark and that she had been walking for a long time.

2. an action that was in progress just before a given past moment and it affects the past situation in some way.

•She rose from the chair on which she had been sitting. It was the letter she had been expecting.

3.parallel actions in the principal and in the subordinate clause of time introduced by

the conjunctions while and since and such words as long as, all time, during the time.

•Our friendship had been growing ail the time we had been working on the project.

The Future Tenses (the Simple Future, the Future Progressive, the Future Perfect, the Future Perfect Progressive. Other Means of Expressing Future Actions)

THE SIMPLE FUTURE

I. The Simple Future is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

• I shall see him tomorrow. He will visit them soon.

In present-day English there is a tendency to use will for all the persons. The difference in the use of shall and will disappears altogether in spoken English where the contracted form 'II is used with all the persons.

• I'll see him tomorrow. They'll see him soon.

The auxiliary verbs shall and will are also used to build up the interrogative and the negative forms.

• Shall we see you tomorrow? Will they see him next week?

II. The Simple Future is used only in present-time contexts to express:

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1.a single action that will be completed in the future.

•It will be cold in the evening.

I shall come along as often as possible.

2.an action occupying a whole period of time in the future.

•I hope you'll live for many years.

I think I shall remain in love with you all my life.

3.recurrent actions in the future.

•We shall meet and talk and make plans from time to time.

THE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

I. The Future Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Simple Future and Participle I of the notional verb.

•I shall be seeing him often now.

We shall be visiting them very soon.

In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

•Shall I be seeing him often now? Shall we be visiting them very soon?

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary.

•I shall not be seeing him often now.

We shall not be visiting them very soon.

II. The Future Progressive is used to express:

1.An action in progress at a definite future moment. The given future moment at which the action takes place is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier or is clear from the context or situation.

•it will be too late. He will be sleeping.

•In an hour I'll be flying over the sea.

2.An anticipated (a matter-of-course) action which is supposed to take place in the

future in the normal, natural course of events.

•I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow. She feels she'll be suffering all her life.

Note: Even stative verbs can be used in this meaning.

•She says she'll be seeing you tomorrow.

Don't worry! I'll be knowing all about it very soon.

THE FUTURE PERFECT

I. The Future Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Future and Participle II of the notional verb.

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•I shall have read the book by that time. He will have done it by that time.

In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

• Will she have read the book by that time?

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary.

• She will not have read the book by that time.

II. The Future Perfect is used to express an action completed before a given future

moment which is usually indicated by an adverbial modifier of time.

• You will have got my telegram before this letter reaches you.

THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

I. All the forms of the Future Perfect Progressive are analytical. They are formed with the Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

• I shall have been speaking for two hours before you come.

Their interrogative and negative forms are built up in the usual way. It is hardly ever used, situations which require it very seldom arise. It denotes actions which began before a certain moment of time in the future and go on up to that moment or into it.

• I shall have been living here for five years next February.

OTHER MEANS OF EXPRESSING FUTURE ACTIONS IN ENGLISH

English is rich in means of expressing an action in the future owing to various modal meanings such as intention, willingness, readiness, obligation, assurance, expectation and the like.

I. The Present Progressive is used to express an action in the near future as definitely settled due to one's previous decision.

• You know, I'm leaving tonight.

She is coming to lunch on Thursday.

II. To be + infinitive (with to). In this combination to be is usually regarded as a modal verb. It serves to indicate previous arrangement and obligation resulting from the previous arrangement.

• I've had a letter from home. I am to go back at once.

Sometimes the meaning of obligation is so strong that this combination expresses order or instructions.

• You are not to talk like that in front of the child!

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III. To be going + infinitive. This form is in frequent use in Modern English. It expresses a premeditated intention.

•I am going to tell him what I think of him. She's going to explain that tomorrow.

The Rules of the Sequence of Tenses

I. If the verb in the principal clause is in one of the present or future tenses the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense form required by the situation.

am now

was last night They will wonder where I will be soon

have been all this time

II. The Sequence of Tenses is used when someone's words are reported. The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are mainly observed in subordinate object, subject, predicative, appositive clauses, and in clauses of purpose. After the past tense forms in the principal clause we find relative use of tense forms in the subordinate clauses, a shift of tenses into the past. There are two possible cases:

(1)the rules of the sequence of tenses are compulsory;

(2)the rules of the sequence of tenses are optional.

1. The rules of the sequence of tenses are compulsory when the action of the subordinate clause is viewed from the past.

a)If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, the Simple Past or the Past Progressive is used in the object clause no matter which past tense form is found in the principal clause.

•She didn't know where she was. He said that he lived in Rome. They noticed that I was not listening. They took the key when I was not looking.

b)If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Progressive is used in the subordinate clause no matter which past tense is found in the principal clause.

•She had a feeling that she had been deceived. I knew you had left the city. I knew well enough what she had been doing all that time.

c)If the action of the subordinate clause refers to the future, the Future-in-the- Past (Simple or Progressive) or one of the other means of expressing a future action is used.

•We hoped she would soon be better.

He was sure she would be thinking about him. She said she was going to have a nap.

They explained that they were leaving the next day,

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2. The rules of the sequence of tenses are optional (i. e. may be observed or not) when reference is made to the actual present time or the actual future time. This use is found in dialogues, newspapers and radio reports.

•He said he doesn't ever want to see you. I said I’m making a salad for supper.

I wanted to know what day I'll be leaving.

III.The rules of the Sequence of Tenses are not observed in some quite logical cases:

1. when the verb of the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth or facts that still hold true.

•At school in France the boys told me you can't live with forty-four degrees. And I've got a hundred and two.

•Our Geography teacher told us at the last lesson that there aren't any unknown islands left on the earth.

2.with the modal verbs must, should, ought to, the rules of the Sequence of Tenses are not

observed either.

•I wrote that I must see him. He said she should be less choosy. Two people advised me that I ought to see a doctor.

3.if we are reporting an immediate future event, we can leave the verbs shall, will in the present:

•Don't leave. She said she will make some coffee.

4.in reporting a narration the past tense does not change. Also, if there is a concrete past date.

•He said that he was born in Kiev and then the family moved to Minsk. She said she graduated from University in 1997.

5.the Simple Past in subordinate clauses of time (introduced by the conjunctions when and since)

is not changed according to the rules of the Sequence of Tenses into the Past Perfect Tense.

•She said, 'When I left school, he was already studying at University.' (Simple Past)

•She said that when she left school, he was already studying at University. (Simple Past)

•Mary said, 'I haven't met my boyfriend since we parted.' (Present Perfect)

•Mary said that she hadn't met her boyfriend since they parted. (Past Perfect)

6.the Past Continuous doesn't undergo any changes, it stays as it is:

•He remarked, 'When I came in she was singing.'

He remarked that when he came in she was singing.

Voice

I. Voice is the form of the verb which shows whether the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action expressed by the verb or whether it was acted upon. There are two voices in English — the Active Voice and the Passive Voice.

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The Active Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence is the agent (the doer) of the action expressed by the predicate verb.

It is common knowledge that the Passive Voice is more extensively used in English than in Russian. As a general rule, the passive construction is used when there is no need to mention the agent of the action because it is either easily understood from the situation or context, or because it is not important.

•Her two brothers were wounded in the war. The telegram had been delivered on time.

II. The Passive Voice is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb.

the Simple Present — is (am, are) done the Simple Past — was (were) done

the Simple Future — will (shall) be done the Present Perfect — has (have) been done the Past Perfect — had been done

the Future Perfect — will (shall) have been done the Present Progressive — is (am, are) being done the Past Progressive — was (were) being done

The Passive Voice doesn't have the Future Progressive, the Future Progressive-in-the- Past and all the Perfect Progressive forms.

The interrogative form is built up by placing the (first) auxiliary verb before the subject of the sentence

•When was it done? Has the work been done?

When will the fax be sent? Where is the centre being built?

The negative form is built up by placing the particle not after the (first) auxiliary.

•The work was not done yesterday. The file hasn't been opened yet.

III. The Passive Voice in English is found with different types of verbs (mostly transitive).

1.There are a number of verbs in English which take two objects — a direct and an indirect object. These verbs may have two passive constructions. The most frequently used verbs of this kind are: to tell, to give, to offer, to show, to pay, to live, to promise, to send, to teach, to allow, to ask, to answer, to forgive, to invite, to advise and a few others.

•A very good job was offered to me. He was offered a well-paid job.

2.There are a great number of verbs in English that require a prepositional object. These verbs may also be used in the Passive. The prep-

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position retains its place after the verb. This construction may be called the Prepositional Passive.

•He is well spoken of as a man of science. The doctor was sent for half an hour ago. He was looked upon as their leader.

You're being made a fool of.

3.The Prepositional Passive is not used with verbs which take two objects, direct and prepositional. Here belong such verbs as to explain (something to somebody), to point out, to announce, to dictate,

to describe, to mention, to repeat, to suggest, to propose.

•The difficulty was explained to her. The mistake was pointed out to us. A new plan was suggested to us.

Notes:

1.The active forms of the verbs sell, wash, peel, crease, wear, bake, burn are used though the meanings are passive:

•This staff washes and wears well and doesn't crease. Detective stories sell well. Dry leaves burn well.

2.There is a certain group of transitive verbs which are not used in the passive voice. They are: to seem, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble. There are semantic reasons for this, as these verbs

don't denote actions or processes, but states.

•John resembles his father. (John looks like his father). He has become a real professional. He seems to know all.

The Complex Object

The Complex Object is a syntactic construction which consists of a noun in the common case (or a pronoun in the objective case) and an adjective, an infinitive (with or without the particle to) or a participle. The relation between the parts of the Complex Object is that of the secondary subject and the secondary predicate of the sentence.

•No one expects Diana to refuse. They found the house empty. I watched her move away. We felt him watching us.

While an infinitive is used to express a fact, Participle I stresses the process.

Compare:

•We saw him enter the hall, (...как он вошел...) We saw him entering the hall, (...как он входил...)

1.The Complex Object is used after the following verbs: want, expect, would like, would love, would hate, would prefer. The infinitive is used with the particle to.

•I want all my friends to come to my birthday party and I would love you to join us.

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2. There are a few verbs in English after which the infinitive is used without the particle to. They are verbs:

a)of sense perception: to feel, to hear, to see, to watch, to notice.

• I've never heard you sing.

We've watched you grow for many years.

b)of compulsion: to let, to make, to have.

•We let the boy play with the dog. What makes you refuse such an offer? They had him do as they wished.

If these verbs are used in the Passive Voice, the particle to should be used.

•He was seen to leave the house. The boy was made to tell the truth.

3. The verbs to see and to hear in the meaning to know, to understand are followed by a subordinate clause.

•We hear that he has returned to Moscow. I see that you are wrong.

Modal Verbs

There is a great variety of different modal verbs expressing the speaker's attitude towards the action in the sentence. We find the following modal verbs in English: can, may, must, to have to, to be to, ought to, should, need.

A modal verb in combination with the infinitive forms a compound modal predicate. Modal verbs lack many forms characteristic of regular verbs: they have no -s in the third

person singular in the Simple Present, and no verbals, some of them lack the form of the past tense.

Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:

1.they are followed by the infinitive without the particle to (with the exception of ought to, to have to and to be to);

2.their interrogative and negative forms are built up without the auxiliary verb (except the verb to have to);

3.most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning. They all show that a certain action is represented as necessary, possible, desirable, doubtful, obligatory from the point of view of the speaker.

THE MODAL VERB CAN

I. The Modal verb can has two tense forms: can (the Simple Present) — could (the Simple Past).

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