Part II college and university

Higher education refers to study beyond secondary school level and usually assumes that a student has undertaken 13 years of study and has a high school diploma. There are three main levels of higher education: undergraduate studies (bachelor's degree), graduate studies (master's degree) and postgraduate studies (doctor's degree). The four years of undergraduate study for a bachelor’s degree are referred to as freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (also used in high schools ).

Every state has its own university, and some states operate large networks of colleges and universities: The State University of New York, for instance, has more than 60 campuses in New York State. Some cities also have their own public universities. In many areas, junior or community colleges provide a bridge between high school and four-year colleges for some students. In junior colleges, students can generally complete their first two years of college courses at low cost and remain close to home. Degree level courses are offered by around 3,500 accredited colleges and universities, with a wide variety of admission requirements and programs. Of the total college population of 15 million students (12 million in public colleges and 3 million in private), around 500,000 are overseas students, half of which are working on graduate level degrees.

Although the terms “college” and “university” are often used interchangeably, a college may be independent or part of a university (both colleges and universities are also referred to simply as schools). An American college typically offers a blend of natural and social sciences and humanistic studies. Students are usually 18 to 22 and attend college for around four years to earn a bachelor's degree in arts or science. On the other hand, a university is usually composed of an undergraduate college of arts and sciences, plus graduate and professional schools and facilities.

A high school diploma is not a ticket that allows someone to automatically enter a university. Standardized examinations play a decisive role at almost every level of education, especially in the admission to colleges and universities. Students who wish to go to a good university but only took high school courses that were a "snap," or who spent too much time on extracurricular activities, will have to compete with those who worked hard and took demanding courses. There are two widely used and nationally-ad­ministered standardized tests for high school stu­dents who wish to attend a college or university. One is the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), which attempts to measure aptitudes in verbal and mathematical fields necessary for college work. The other is the ACT (American College Test), which attempts to measure skills in Eng­lish, mathematics, and the social and natural sciences. Both tests are given at specific dates and locations throughout the U.S. by non-profit, non­governmental organizations. The tests are used by universities as standards for comparison, but are not in any way "official."

Each year, the SAT is taken by some two mil­lion high school students. One million of these students are in their last year of high school. Another million are in their next-to-last year. The ACT, more commonly used in the western part of the U.S., is taken each year by another million high school students. With so many different types of high schools and programs, with so many differences in subjects and standards, these tests provide common, nationwide measuring sticks. Many universities publish the average scores achieved on these tests by the students they admit. This indicates the "quality" or level of ability expected of those who apply. Most colleges also consider more subjective factors such as a commitment to extracurricular activities, a personal essay, and an interview. Each college usually has a rough threshold below which admission is unlikely.

Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university and class requirements to achieve a bachelor's degree in a field of concentration known as a major. (Some students enroll in double majors or "minor" in another field of study.) It has been estimated that American colleges and universities offer more than 1,000 majors. The most common method consists of four years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), a Bachelor of Science (B.S.), or sometimes another bachelor's degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.), Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.), Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.,) or Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.) Five-Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree (B.Arch.) Unlike in the British model, degrees in law and medicine are not offered at the undergraduate level and are completed as graduate study after earning a bachelor's degree.

Some students choose to attend a community college for two years prior to further study at another college or university. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency. Community colleges may award Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four-year college or university. Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four-year college, where the community college provides the first two years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one campus. The community college awards the associate's degree, and the university awards the bachelor's and master's degrees.

Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and sometimes after several years of professional work, leads to a more advanced degree such as a master's degree, which could be a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business Administration (MBA), or other less common master's degrees such as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts (MFA). After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with the completion of a master's degree, students may earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy, or Doctor of Jurisprudence. Some programs, such as medicine, have formal apprenticeship procedures which must be completed after graduation and before one is considered to be fully trained. Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation (although law school graduates must take the bar exam in order to legally practice law in nearly all states).

Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student's undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam. Many graduate and law schools do not require experience after earning a bachelor's degree to enter their programs; however, business school candidates are usually required to gain a few years of professional work experience before applying. Only 8.9 percent of students ever receive postgraduate degrees, and most, after obtaining their bachelor's degree, proceed directly into the workforce.

One of the most surprising and unique aspects of the US education system is that many of the most prestigious universities are private foundations and receive no federal or state funds (their main source of income in addition to fees is endowments). The most famous universities include the Ivy League universities (so called because they've been sufficiently long established for ivy to have grown on the walls): Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Pennsylvania, Princeton and Yale. The Ivy League, together with the 'heavenly seven' or 'seven sisters' (Barnard, Bryn Mawr, Mount Holyoke, Radcliffe, Smith, Vassar and Wellesley) of once all-female colleges, are the most prestigious American universities. Although some people claim their fame rests more upon their social standing than their academic excellence, attending one of these colleges usually pays off in the job market, particularly at executive level. Other world-renowned American higher education institutions include the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge (Massachusetts), the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and Stanford University in California, all of which have earned distinguished international reputations for their research and academic excellence.

The academic standards of American colleges and universities vary greatly, and some institutions are better known for the quality of their social life or sports teams than for their academic achievements. Establishments range from vast educational 'plants' (with as many as 50,000 students) offering the most advanced training available, to small private academies emphasizing personal instruction and a preference for the humanities or experimentation. Major universities are like small cities with their own shops, banks, police and fire departments, and are usually renowned for the excellence of their teaching, research facilities, libraries and sports facilities.

The main difference between higher education in the US and that in many other countries is that in the US, the system is designed to keep people in education rather than screen them out. Some 55 per cent of American high school graduates go on to some sort of higher education. Many Americans look upon a bachelor's or master's degree, rather than high school graduation, as the natural completion of school life. With the exception of the top dozen or so, American colleges and universities are geared to the average rather than the brighter student. The academic standards required to earn a bachelor's degree in the US are lower than in many other countries. Some colleges accept almost any high school graduate and are negatively referred to as “diploma mills” or “degree factories” (which has diminished the value of degrees). Admission requirements are rigorous in some colleges and lax in others; the most prestigious schools are private, rather than public. Highly reputable colleges such as Harvard and Yale accept only students of exceptional ability.

Most universities have excellent professors, due in large part to paying vast salaries which enable them to attract the best brains (many from abroad). Professors have a much higher social standing than school teachers and are permitted a high degree of autonomy in their teaching methods (associate and assistant professors are fancy names for readers or lecturers).

Terms and Grades

Most colleges and universities have two terms (semesters) or sessions a year of around 14 weeks each: fall, from September to late December, and spring, which extends from late January to late May. Some divide the academic year into three sessions: fall, spring and summer. Those who miss or fail a course can catch up by attending summer school, an intensive eight-week course offered between terms. Most students complete ten courses per academic year and usually take four years to complete a bachelor’s degree requirement of around 120 credits. Those who achieve the highest grade point averages (GPAs) graduate as Summa cum Laude (excellent), Magna cum Laude (very good) and Cum Laude (good). All other successful students are awarded ungraded degrees.

Fees, Grants and Scholarships

Unlike public elementary and secondary schools, public colleges and universities usually charge tuition. However, the amount often is much lower than that charged by comparable private institutions, which do not receive the same level of public support. Many students attend college - whether public or private - with the benefit of federal loans that must be repaid after graduation.

About 25 percent of colleges and universities are privately operated by religious groups. Most of these are open to students of all faiths. There are also many private institutions with no religious ties. Whether public or private, colleges depend on three sources of income: student tuition, endowments (gifts made by benefactors), and government funding.

Tuition fees vary widely among colleges and universities and no two institutions charge the same fees. Public state colleges and universities charge significantly lower fees for in-state residents and higher fees for non-residents. Average tuition fees for public four-year colleges and universities are around $3,500 per year and for private institutions around $15,000 per year, although you can pay twice as much for tuition at an Ivy League college. In addition to tuition fees, there are also fees for registration, health center, sports center, and parking (all of which must be paid at the start of each semester). Room and board, books and supplies, transportation and other expenses cost on average $8,000 to $15,000 per year, depending on the area, and whether you attend a public or private institution. All in all, paying for a child’s college education is a major investment for parents, most of whom can expect to spend $50,000 to $100,000 to put a child through college. Most families participate in savings and investment schemes to finance their children’s college education. Many students obtain part-time jobs during term-time and summer breaks, while others receive grants, scholarships and loans.

Scholarships are awarded directly by universities as well as by fraternal, civil, labor and management organizations (around a third of students at Harvard receive a scholarship). Foreign students don’t usually receive financial aid at the undergraduate level from public universities, but it is possible for them to obtain a scholarship for their tuition fees from a private university.

DISCUSSION

1. What levels does higher education comprise?

2. How many years does it take to get a bachelor’s degree? Master’s degree? Doctor’s degree?

3. What is the difference between a college and a university?

4. What does SAT stand for? What does ACT stand for? What are these tests used for?

5. Are the results of standardized tests the only criterion for admission to college?

6. What kinds of scientific degrees (bachelor’s and master’s) are available for American students?

7. How long does it take to obtain a degree of a Bachelor of Architecture?

8. How are community colleges operated? What kind of degrees can community colleges award?

9. What does admission to graduate programs depend on? Is professional experience always required?

10. Do many Americans continue their education after obtaining a bachelor’s degree?

11. What is the major source of income for private universities?

12. What are the most prestigious universities in the USA today?

13. How do American universities differ? Do all of them have similar academic standards?

14. What is the main difference between higher education in the USA and other countries?

15. Why are some American colleges negatively referred to as “diploma mills” or “degree factories”?

16. Are the most prestigious of American higher education institutions usually public or private?

17. What helps American universities to attract the best professors?

18. How many terms is an academic year divided into?

19. What is the number of credits a student is usually required to take for obtaining a bachelor’s degree?

20. What is an average college tuition fee in the US?

SUPPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES

Read this interview with an American student who talks about his high school. Does he have to work hard? What does he like and dislike about his school?

Quincy, Illinois, is a typical mid-western town of about 80,000 inhabitants. It is situated 120 miles north of St. Louis, the nearest big city. Quincy Senior High with a student population of 1,900 is the only public senior high school in the town and it also draws students from the surrounding region.

Q: Alan, which high school do you attend?

A: I attend Quincy Senior High School in Quincy, Illinois. I've been there for four years, and I'm in the twelfth grade.

Q: What are the subjects required in your four years of high school?

A: Well, in my four years of high school I have to complete twenty credits, one in math, three in history, three in English, three and a half in P.E., a half in health and one year of science. And that adds up to twelve credits. The other eight were optional and I could take more of any one subject such as math, history or I could take other subjects such as psy­chology or computers, or so on.

Q: And what are your subjects now?

A: My present subjects now are math, English, German, computers, business law and one study hour which normally would be P.E. But I run track after school and so therefore I take a study hall instead of P.E. Besides sports there are also several other activities after school such as band, drama club, theater, chess club, many other clubs such as German club and Spanish club and so forth.

Q: What does your schedule look like?

A: Well, I attend school between 7.30 and 2.20 every day and in that time period I have six hour-classes and a thirty-minute break for lunch. And between each class I've five-minute breaks.

Q: Can you tell me anything about the tests and examin­ations at your school?

A: Well, we have many different kinds of tests. Usually we have essay tests, multiple choice tests. Then there are other tests such as quizzes and oral examinations such as book reports and speeches and such.

Q: What about homework?

A: It's different with every teacher. Some teachers like to give lots of homework and others don't give that much. It just depends upon their teaching style.

Q: How do teachers evaluate the performance of students?

A: Well, usually a teacher evaluates the performance by written tests equalling fifty per cent of the grade, oral tests and quizzes as forty per cent and homework as ten per cent. And then usually we write a large paper twice a year called the term paper and that also adds into the grade.

Q: Is there a strict code of conduct at your school?

A: Each student receives a detailed student hand­book which therein has the rights and responsibilities governing smoking, lavatory use, language – obscene or vulgar - what may and may not be brought to school, such as radios or weapons or drugs. There are also rules concerning absenteeism and tardiness to class and the penalties such as detention, m-school suspension, out-of-school sus­pension and expulsion.

I know these rules sound really strict, and they are a bit, but for the most part they're common sense. And the atmosphere isn't as bad as it sounds. It is not a prison. It's actually quite relaxed and quite friendly.

Q: What part of the school life at Quincy would you be critical of?

A: Well, as a whole I like Quincy High a lot and if I could change one thing, it would probably be the breaks between class. I think they are too short. Five minutes isn't enough time to get from one class to the other.

Q: What do you like best about your school?

A: Well, I like Quincy High a lot. I like the teachers the best. They're good teachers and they're easy to get along with. I also like the fact that Quincy is a bigger school because that gives me more opportunities in sports and in the variety of classes that I can take.