Unit 12 part I government

' 'Americans are a nation born of an idea; not the place, but [the] idea, created the United States Government." (Theodore H. White)

The Constitution and the Bill of Rights

The Constitution of the United States is the central instrument of American government and the supreme law of the land. For over 200 years it has guided the evolution of governmental institutions and has provided the basis for political stability, individual freedom, economic growth and social progress. The American Constitution is the world’s oldest written constitution in force, one that has served as the model for a number of other constitutions around the world.

The path of the American Constitution was neither straight nor easy. The former colonies, now "the United States of America," first operated under an agreement called the Articles of Confederation (1781). It was soon clear that this loose agreement among the states was not working well. The central, federal government was too weak, with too few powers for defense, trade, and taxation. In 1787, therefore, delegates from the states met in Phil­adelphia. They wanted to revise the Articles, but they did much more than that. They wrote a completely new document, the Constitution, which after much argument, debate, and com­promise was finished in the same year and offi­cially adopted on March 4, 1789. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution included most of the outstanding leaders, or Founding Fathers, of the new nation. They represented a wide range of interests and backgrounds. All agreed, however, on the central objectives expressed in the preamble to the Constitution:

“We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessing of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

The primary aim of the Constitution was to create a strong elected government, directly responsive to the will of the people. The Constitution departed sharply from the Articles of Confederation in that it established a strong central, or federal, government with broad powers to regulate relations between the states, and with sole responsibility in such areas as foreign affairs and defense.

The Constitution sets the basic form of government: three separate branches, each one having powers ("checks and balances") over the others. It spec­ifies the powers and duties of each federal branch of government, with all other powers and duties belonging to the states. The Constitution has been repeatedly amended to meet the changing needs of the nation, but it is still the "supreme law of the land." All governments and governmental groups, federal, state, and local, must operate within its guidelines. The ultimate power under the Constitution is not given to the President (the executive branch), or to the Congress (the legisla­tive branch), or to the Supreme Court (the judicial branch). Nor does it rest, as in many other coun­tries, with a political group or party. It belongs to "We the People," in fact and in spirit.

The authors of the Constitution were aware that changes would be needed from time to time if the Constitution were to endure and to keep pace with the growth of the nation. Hence, they included in the Constitution a provision for amending the document when social, economic or political conditions demanded it. Since 1789 it has been amended 27 times, but and it is likely to be further revised in the future. The most sweeping changes were made within two years of its adoption. In that period the first 10 amendments, known as The Bill of Rights, were added. In the first ten Constitutional Amendments Americans stated what they considered to be the fundamen­tal rights of any American. Among these rights are the freedom of religion, speech, and the press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to peti­tion the government to correct wrongs. Other rights guarded the citizens against unreasonable searches, arrests, and seizures of property, and established a system of justice guaranteeing or­derly legal procedures. This included the right of trial by jury, that is, being judged by one's fellow citizens.

The great pride Americans have in their Con­stitution, their almost religious respect for it, comes from the knowledge that these ideals, free­doms, and rights were not given to them by a small ruling class. Rather, they are seen as the natural "unalienable" rights of every American, which had been fought for and won. They cannot be taken away by any government, court, official, or law.

The federal and state governments formed under the Constitution, therefore, were designed to serve the people and to carry out their majority wishes (and not the other way around). One thing they did not want their government to do is to rule them. Americans expect their governments to serve them and tend to think of politicians and governmental officials as their servants. This atti­tude remains very strong among Americans today.

Over the past two centuries, the Constitution has also had considerable influence outside the United States. Several other nations have based their own forms of government on it. It is interest­ing to note that Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution, drafted the French declaration of rights when he returned to France. And the United Nations Charter also has clear echoes of what once was considered a revolutionary docu­ment.

The Legislative Branch

Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 Senators, two from each state. One third of the Sena­tors are elected every two years for six-year terms of office. The Senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests. The House has 435 members. They are elected every two years for two-year terms. They repre­sent the population of "congressional districts" into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population. For instance, California, the state with the largest population, has 45 Representa­tives, while Delaware has only one. The Constitution provides for a national census each 10 years and a redistribution of House seats according to population shifts. There is no limit to the number of terms a Senator or a Rep­resentative may serve. Almost all elections in the United States follow the "winner-take-all" principle: the candidate who wins the largest number of votes in a Con­gressional district is the winner. The Constitution requires that US senators must be at least 30 years of age, citizens of the United States for at least 9 years, and residents of the states from which they are elected. Members of the House of Representatives must be at least 25, citizens for 7 years, and residents of the states which send them to the Congress.

The main duty of the Congress is to make laws, and each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation. A law begins as a proposal called a “bill”. Once a bill is introduced, it is sent to the appropriate committee. Each house of the Congress has committees which specialize in a particular of legislation, such as foreign affairs, defense, banking, and agriculture. Every bill introduces in either house is referred to a committee for study and recommendation. It is nearly impossible for a bill to reach the House or Senate floor without first winning committee approval. After the committee approval the proposed legislation goes to the Senate or House chamber where it was first introduced. After a debate, the bill is voted on. If it passes, it is to the other house where it goes through a similar process. Because legislation only becomes law if both houses agree, compromise between them is necessary. The Senate may reject a bill proposed in the House of Representatives or add amendments. If it happens, a “conference committee” made up of members from both houses tries to work out a compromise. If both sides agree on the new version, the bill is sent to the president for his signature. The president may sign the bill (in such case it becomes a law) or veto it. A bill vetoed by the president must be reapproved by two-thirds of both houses to become a law. The president may also refuse either to sign or veto a bill. In that case the bill becomes a law without his signature in 10 days. The single exception to this rule is when Congress adjourns after sending a bill to the president and before the 10-day period has expired; his refusal to take any action then negates the bill – a process known as the “pocket veto”.

The Executive Branch

The executive branch of government is responsible for administering the laws passed by Congress. The president of the Unites States presides over the executive branch of the federal government – a vast organization numbering several million people- and in addition has important legislative and judicial powers. The President of the United States is elected every four years to a four-year term of office, with no more than two full terms allowed. The Constitution requires the president to be a native-born American citizen at least 35 years of age. Candidates for the presidency are chosen by political parties several months before the presidential election, which is held every four years. The vice-president, who is elected with the president, is assigned only two constitutional duties. The first is to preside over the Senate. However, the vice-president may vote only in the event of a tie. The second duty is to assume the presidency if the president dies, becomes disabled, or is removed from office.

The president, as the chief formulator of public policy, has a major legislative role. He can veto any bill passed by Congress and, unless two-thirds of each house vote to override the veto, the bill does not become law. In annual and special messages to the Congress, the president may propose legislation. However, the President's policies must be ap­proved by the House of Representatives and the Senate before they can become law. In domestic as well as in foreign policy, the President can seldom count upon the automatic support of the Congress, even when his own party has a majority in both the Senate and the House. Therefore he must be able to convince Congressmen, the Rep­resentatives and Senators, of his point of view. He must bargain and compromise. This is a major difference between the American system and those in which the nation's leader represents the majority party or parties, that is, parliamentary systems.

The Constitution gives the president many important powers. The president can issue rules, regulations and instructions, called executive orders, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies. As head of state, the president represents the country abroad, meets foreign leaders and addresses the public. He appoints foreign ambassadors and makes treaties with other nations. The president also serves as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and as head of his political party. As chief executive, the president appoints secretaries/heads of the major departments that make up the president’s cabinet. Today there are 13 major departments in the executive branch. Currently these are the departments of State, Treasury, Defense, Jus­tice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Resources, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, and Education. Each department is established by law, and, as their names indicate, each is responsible for a specific area. President’s appointments of department heads, however, must be approved by the Senate. None of these Secretaries, as the depart­ment heads are usually called, can also be serving in Congress or in another part of the government. Each is directly responsible to the President and only serves as long as the President wants him or her to. They can best be seen, therefore, as Presidential assistants and advisers. Some Presidents have relied quite a lot on their Cabinets for advice, and some very little. Each department has thousands of employees, with offices throughout the country as well as in Washington. The departments are divided into divisions, bureaus, offices and services, each with specific duties.

The Judicial Branch

The third branch of government, in addition to the legislative (Congress) and executive (Presi­dent) branches, is the federal judiciary. It consists of a system of courts spread throughout the country. Within the judicial branch, authority is divided between state and federal (national) courts. The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court, the final interpreter of the Constitution, which watches over the other two branches.

The Constitution recognizes that the states have certain rights and authorities beyond the power of the federal government. States have the power to establish their own systems of criminal and civil laws, with the result that each state has its own laws, prisons, police force, and state court. Within each state there are also county and city courts. Generally state laws are quite similar, but in some areas there is great diversity (e.g. the minimum age for marriage and the sentences for murder vary from state to state).

The separate system of federal courts, which operates alongside the state courts, handles cases which arise under the US Constitution or under any law or treaty, as well as any controversy to which the federal government is itself a party. Federal courts also hear disputes involving governments or citizens of different states.

The Supreme Court determines whether or not the laws and acts are in accord­ance with the Constitution. The Congress has the power to fix the number of judges sitting on the Court, but it cannot change the powers given to the Supreme Court by the Constitution itself. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. They are nominated by the President but must be approved by the Senate. Once approved, they hold office as Supreme Court justices for life. A decision of the Supreme Court cannot be appealed to any other court. Neither the President nor Congress can change their decisions.

The Supreme Court has direct jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: those involving foreign diplomats and those in which a state is a party. All other cases which reach the Court are appeals from lower courts. In such cases someone claims that a lower court ruling is unjust, or that Constitutional law has been violated. The Supreme Court chooses which cases it will hear. Most of the cases involve the interpretation of the Constitution. The Supreme Court also has the "power of judi­cial review," that is, it has the right to declare laws and actions of the federal, state, and local govern­ments unconstitutional. While not stated in the Constitution, this power was established over time. It is in this function that the Supreme Court has the potential to influence decisively the political, social, and economic life of the country. In the past, Supreme Court rulings have given new protection and freedom to blacks and other minorities. The Supreme Court has nullified certain laws of Congress and has declared actions of American presidents unconstitutional.

Checks and Balances

The Constitution provides for three main branch­es of government which are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are carefully balanced by the powers of the other two.

Each branch serves as a check on the others. This is to keep any branch from gaining too much power or from misusing its powers. The chart below illustrates how the equal branches of gov­ernment are connected and how each is depend­ent on the other two.

The Separation of Powers

The Congress has the power to make laws, but the President may veto any act of the Congress. The Con­gress, in its turn, can override a veto by a two-thirds vote in each house. The Congress can also re­fuse to provide funds requested by the President. The President can appoint important officials of his administration, but they must be approved by the Senate. The President also has the power to name all federal judges; they, too, must be ap­proved by the Senate. The courts have the power to determine the constitutionality of all acts of the Congress and of presidential actions, and to strike down those they find unconstitutional.

The system of checks and balances makes com­promise and consensus necessary. Compromise is also a vital aspect of other levels of government in the United States. This system protects against extremes. It means, for example, that new presi­dents cannot radically change governmental policies just as they wish. In the U.S., therefore, when people think of "the government," they usually mean the entire system, that is, the Execu­tive Branch and the President, the Congress, and the courts. In fact and in practice, therefore, the Presi­dent (i.e. "the Administration") is not as powerful as many people outside the U.S. seem to think he is. In comparison with other leaders in systems where the majority party forms "the govern­ment," he is much less so.

Federalism: State and Local Governments

The fifty states are quite diverse in size, popula­tion, climate, economy, history, and interests. The fifty state governments often differ from one another, too. Because they often approach political, social, or economic questions differently, the states have been called "laboratories of democ­racy." However, they do share certain basic struc­tures. The individual states all have republican forms of government with a senate and a house. (There is one exception, Nebraska, which has only one legislative body of "senators.") All have executive branches headed by state governors and independent court systems. Each state also has its own constitution. But all must respect the federal laws and not make laws that interfere with those of the other states (e.g., someone who is divorced under the laws of one state is legally divorced in all). Likewise, cities and local authorities must make their laws and regulations so that they fit their own state's constitution.

The Constitution limits the federal government to specific powers, but modern judicial interpre­tations of the Constitution have expanded federal responsibilities. All others automatically belong to the states and to the local communities. This has meant that there has always been a battle between federal and states' rights. The traditional American distrust of a too powerful central government has kept the battle fairly even over the years. The states and local communities in the US have rights that in other countries generally belong to the central government.

All education at any level, for example, is the concern of the states. The local communities have the real control at the public school level. They control administration of the schools. They elect the school board officials, and their local com­munity taxes largely support the schools. Each individual school system, therefore, hires and fires and pays its own teachers. It sets its own policies within broad state guidelines. Similarly, there is no national police force, the FBI being limited to a very few federal crimes, such as kidnapping. Each state has its own state police and its own criminal laws. The same is true with, for example, marriage and divorce laws, driving laws and licenses, drinking laws, and voting procedures. In turn, each city has its own police force that it hires, trains, controls, and organizes. Neither the President nor the governor of a state has direct power over it.

There are many other areas which are also the concern of cities, towns, and villages. Among these are the opening and closing hours for stores, street and road repair, or architectural laws and other regulations. Also, one local community might decide that a certain magazine is porno­graphic and forbid its sale, or a local school board might determine that a certain novel should not be in their school library. (A court, however, may later tell the community or school board that they have unfairly attempted to exercise censorship.) But another village, a few miles down the road, might accept both.

Most states and some cities have their own income taxes. Many cities and counties also have their own laws saying who may and may not own a gun. Many airports, some of them international, are owned and controlled by cities or counties and have their own airport police. Finally, a great many of the most hotly debated questions, which in other countries are decided at the national level, are settled by the individual states and communities. Among these are, for example, laws about drug use, capital punish­ment, abortion, and homosexuality.

A connecting thread that runs all the way through governments in the U.S. is the "accounta­bility" of politicians, officials, agencies, and gov­ernmental groups. This means that information and records on crimes, fires, marriages and di­vorces, court cases, property taxes, etc. are public information. It means, for example, that when a small town needs to build a school or buy a new police car, how much it will cost (and which company offered what at what cost) will be in the local newspaper. In some cities, meetings of the city council are carried live on radio. As a rule, politicians in the U.S. at any level pay consider­able attention to public opinion.

Adding this up, America has an enormous vari­ety in its governmental bodies. Its system tries to satisfy the needs and wishes of people at the local level, while at the same time the Constitution guarantees basic rights to anyone, anywhere in America. This has been very important, for in­stance, to the Civil Rights Movement and its struggle to secure equal rights for all Americans, regardless of race, place of residence, or state voting laws. Therefore, although the states con­trol their own elections as well as the registration procedures for national elections, they cannot make laws that would go against an individual's constitutional rights.

DISCUSSION

1. What document is the American government based on?

2. What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

3. What was the primary aim of the Constitution?

4. How many times has the US Constitution been amended?

5. What kind of guarantees do the first 10 Amendments provide?

6. What is the structure of American Congress?

7. How does a bill become a law?

8. What are the powers of the US president?

9. What is the presidential term of office? How many terms can US presidents have?

10. What is the judicial branch of power headed by?

11. What are the functions of the Supreme Court?

12. What powers belong to the states?

13. What is the principle of the system of checks and balances?

14. How many governments are there in the US?

15. Why are American states sometimes referred to as “laboratories of democracy”?

GUIDED TALK

Develop the following points using the words below.

1. The US Constitution is the central instrument of American government

the supreme law, to serve as the model, to operate under an agreement, a loose agreement, Founding Fathers

2. The US Constitution sets three separate branches of power.

the system of “checks and balances”, to meet the needs of the nation, to operate within the guidelines, the ultimate power, the executive branch, the judicial branch, the legislative branch, to misuse the power

3. The legislative branch is represented by the Congress.

to be elected, to be based upon the population, national census, a number of terms, to introduce legislation

4. A law begins as a proposal called a “bill”.

to introduce legislation, a committee, to win the committee approval, to vote, to work out a compromise, to sign a bill, to veto a bill

5. The US president is the head of the executive branch.

to preside over smth., to be elected, a candidate for presidency, to be approved by smb., to issue, to appoint

6. The Supreme Court is the final interpreter of the Constitution.

judiciary, authority, to be headed by, in accordance with the Constitution, chief justice, associate justice, to be approved by, direct jurisdiction, a court ruling, to violate the Constitution, to declare unconstitutional

7. The Constitution recognizes that states have certain authorities beyond the power of the federal government.

to establish a system of smth., great diversity, “laboratories of democracy”, to limit, distrust, to be the concern of the state

SUPPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES

1. Listen to a special program from Voice of America – an intermediate listening comprehension course. During listening you will hear the following proper names:

the Federalist Papers

Publius

Alexander Hamilton

James Madison

John Jay

Patrick Henry

George Mason

James Monroe

Edmund Randolph

John Marshall

Thomas Jefferson

George Washington

Mount Vernon

Benjamin Rush

Decide whether the statements below are true or false.

1. The delegates needed 10 out of the 13 states to approve the Constitution.

2. The statements, supporting the Constitution that appeared in newspapers were written by a man, named Publius.

3. The debate over the proposed Constitution divided the society into two groups.

4. The anti-federalists liked the idea of a strong central government.

5. The Continental Congress had few powers however it was the only central government at that time.

6. Delaware ratified the Constitution in December, 1787.

7. It was very important for the nation whether Virginia would ratify the Constitution

8. Virginia was #9 to ratify the Constitution.

9. If New York refused to ratify the Constitution it would divide the nation into two.

10. The Constitution came into effect in 1789.

2. This is a tapescript of a special program from Voice of America – an intermediate listening comprehension course. Fill in the blanks, then listen to the text to check.

a) national government

b) go into effect

c) wise decision

d) put on trial

e) political reality

f) national money system

g) separate colonies

h) elections

i) amendments

j) cruel and unusual punishments

k) highest law of the land

l) machinery of government

m) great natural resources

n) protect people’s rights

o) Bill of Rights

THE HEART AND SPIRIT OF THE CONSTIUTION

ANNOUNCER: 

W elcome to THE MAKING OF A NATION – American history in VOA Special English.

Last week in our series, we described how the Constitution became law once nine of America’s first thirteen states ratified it. The Continental Congress set a date for the new plan of government to take effect. The first Wednesday in March, seventeen eighty-nine. Now, here are Richard Rael and Shep O’Neal to continue our story.

George Washington

VOICE TWO:

In seventeen eighty-nine, the population of the United States was about four million. The thirteen states had been loosely united for a short time, only about ten years. Before that, they were (1) … … of Britain.

Because the colonies were separate, their people developed different ways of life. Their economies and traditions were different. As a result, Americans were fiercely independent. An emergency – the crisis of the revolution – brought them together.

Together, they celebrated the Fourth of July, the day America declared its independence from Britain. Together, they fought British troops to make that declaration a (2) … …. Together, they joined under the Latin phrase ‘E Pluribus Unum’ – one out of many.

Yet when the war ended, the soldiers returned to their home states. They still thought of themselves as New Yorkers, or Virginians, or Marylanders. They did not consider themselves a national people.

VOICE ONE:

Americans of seventeen eighty-nine were sharply divided on the need for a (3) … …. Many were afraid the new government would not survive. They feared the anarchy that would result if it failed. Others hoped it would fail. They wanted strong state governments, not a strong central government.

For those who supported the national government, there were good reasons to hope for success. The country had (4) … … …. And its people were honest and hard-working.

Also, in seventeen eighty-nine, the American economy was improving after the destruction of the Revolutionary War. Agriculture, trade, and shipbuilding were coming back to life. Roads, bridges, and canals were being built to improve travel and communication.

The country’s economy had many problems, however. Two major issues had to be settled. One was repayment of loans made to support the Revolutionary Army. The other was creation of a (5) … … …. Both issues needed quick action.

VOICE TWO:

But before the new government could act, the old government had work to do. It had to decide where the capital city of the new nation would be. It also had to hold (6) … for president and Congress. First, the question of a capital. At the time the states ratified the new Constitution the Continental Congress was meeting in New York City. And that is where it decided to place the new government. Later, the capital would be moved to Philadelphia for a while. Finally, it would be established at Washington, D.C.

Next, the Continental Congress had to decide when the states would choose a president. It agreed on March fourth, seventeen eighty-nine. That was when the new Constitution would (7) … … ….

VOICE ONE:

The eleven states that ratified the Constitution chose electors to vote for a president. The result was not a surprise. They chose the hero of the Revolutionary War: George Washington. No one opposed the choice.

Washington learned of his election while at his home in Virginia, Mount Vernon. He left for New York and was inaugurated there on April thirtieth.

Members of the new Congress also were elected on March fourth.

Now, for the first time, Americans had something many of them had talked about for years – a working national government. There was much work to be done. The (8) … … … was new, untested. Quick decisions were needed to keep the new nation alive and healthy.

VOICE TWO:

One of the first things the Congress did was to re-open debate on the Constitution itself. Several states had set a condition for approving the document. They said a (9) … … … must be added to the Constitution, listing the rights of all citizens.

When the Constitution was written, a majority of the states already had their own bills of rights. So some delegates to the convention said a national bill was unnecessary. Others argued that the Constitution would be the (10) … … … … …, higher than state laws. So a national bill of rights was needed to guarantee the rights of the citizens of the new nation.

Time proved this to be a (11) … … . The Bill of Rights gave the Constitution a special strength. Many Americans consider the Bill of Rights to be the heart and spirit of the Constitution.

VOICE ONE:

What is this Bill of Rights that is so important to the citizens of the United States? It is contained in the first ten (12) … to the Constitution.

The First Amendment is the basic statement of American freedoms. It protects freedom of religion, freedom of speech and freedom of the press.

The First Amendment guarantees that religion and government will be separate in America. It says Congress will make no law establishing an official religion. Nor will Congress interfere in the peoples’ right to worship as they choose. The First Amendment also says Congress will not make laws restricting the peoples’ right to gather peacefully and to make demands on the government.

The Second Amendment guarantees the peoples’ right to keep weapons as part of an organized militia. The Third Amendment says people may not be forced to let soldiers stay in their homes during peacetime.

VOICE TWO:

The Fourth through the Eighth Amendments all (13) … … … in the criminal justice system.

The Fourth Amendment protects people from unreasonable searches and seizures. If police want to search a suspect’s house or papers, they must get special permission from a judge. The document from the judge must say exactly what police are looking for. And it must describe the place to be searched.

VOICE ONE:

The Fifth Amendment says no one can be (14) … … … for a serious crime unless a grand jury has first examined the evidence and agreed that a trial is needed. No one can be put on trial more than once on the same criminal charge. And no one can be forced to give evidence against himself in court.

The Fifth Amendment also says no one can lose their freedom, property, or life except by the rules of law. And the government cannot take people’s property for public use without paying them a fair price.

VOICE TWO:

The Sixth Amendment says all persons accused of crimes have the right to a fair and speedy public trial by a jury. This guarantees that people cannot be kept in prison for a long time unless a jury has found them guilty of a crime.

The Sixth Amendment also guarantees the right of accused persons to be defended by a lawyer. It says they must be informed of the nature and cause of the charges against them. And it says they have the right to face and question their accusers.

The Seventh Amendment guarantees a person’s right to have a jury decide his legal dispute with another person. The Eighth Amendment bars all (15) … … … ….

The Ninth Amendment provides protection for other rights not stated directly in the Constitution. And the Tenth Amendment says any powers which the Constitution does not give to the national government belong to the states or to the people themselves.

VOICE ONE:

A majority of the states approved the Bill of Rights by the end of seventeen ninety-one. As we have seen, these amendments limited the powers of the national government. As a result, many anti-Federalists ended their opposition. They accepted the new government. Many agreed to help with the job of building the new nation.

President Washington wanted the best men – Federalist or anti-Federalist – to be in his administration. The new nation needed strong leadership. George Washington provided it. General Washington’s work as the first president will be our story next week.

ANNOUNCER: 

Our program was written by Christine Johnson and Carolyn Weaver. The narrators were Richard Rael and Shep O’Neal. Transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our programs are at voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for THE MAKING OF A NATION, an American history series in VOA Special English.