Results of Semantic Change

Results of semantic change can be generally observed in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word (restriction and extension of meaning) or in the alteration of its connotational component (amelioration and deterioration of meaning).

Restriction of meaning may be illustrated by the semantic development of the word "hound" which used to denote "a dog of any breed" but now denotes only "a dog used in the chase". The verb "to glide" which had the meaning "to move gently and smoothly" has acquired a restricted and specialised meaning "to fly with no engine" used in the terminology of aviation. If the word with the new restricted meaning comes to be used in the specialised vocabulary of some limited group within the speech community, it is usual to speak of specialization of meaning. Changes in the denotational meaning may also result in the application of the word to a wider variety of referents. This is commonly described as extension of meaning and may be illustrated by the word "target" which originally meant "a small round shield" but now means "anything that is fired at". If the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialised vocabulary into common use, we describe the result of the semantic change as the generalisation of meaning. The word "camp" which originally was used only as a military term, extended and generalized its meaning and now denotes "temporary quarters" of travelers, tourists, etc. Changes in the connotational component of lexical meaning are subdivided into two main groups: a) pejorative development or the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive charge, and b) ameliorative development or the improvement of the connotational component of meaning. E.g. the word "boor" was originally used to denote "a peasant" and then acquired a "derogatory connotational meaning and came to denote "a clumsy or ill bred fellow". The ameliorative development of the connotational meaning may be observed in the change of the semantic structure of the word "minister" which originally denoted "a servant" but now - "a civil servant of higher rank, a person administering a department of state". In conclusion we should say that causes, nature and result of semantic changes should be regarded as three essentially different but closely connected aspects of the same linguistic phenomenon.

Homonymy

Two or more words identical in sound form, spelling but different in meaning, distribution and in many cases origin are called homonyms. The term is derived from Greek (homos "similar" and onoma "name") and thus expresses the sameness of name combined with the difference in meaning.

Modem English is rich in homonymous words and word-forms. It is sometimes suggested that the abundance of homonyms in Modern English is to be accounted for by the monosyllabic structure of the commonly used English words.

Classification of homonyms

1. Arnold I.V.

2. And other linguists

The most widely accepted classification of homonyms is that recognizing homonyms proper, homophones and homographs. Homonyms proper are words identical in pronunciation and spelling: pit n 2 pit n 1 ball n 1 ball n 2

Homophones are words of the same sound form but of different spelling and meaning

piece n. peace n. knight n. night n.

Homographs are words different in sound form and in meaning but accidentally identical in spelling: bow 1 bow 2 row 1 row 2

It has been often argued that homographs constitute a phenomenon that should be kept apart from homonymy as the object of linguistics is sound language (Tyshler I.S.) and words are two-facet units possessing both sound-form and meaning. Thus in the discussion of homonymy the graphic form of words is disregarded (Ginsburg R.S. and others). I.V. Arnold does not think this viewpoint can be accepted. Because of the effects of education and culture written English is a generalised national form of expression. That is why a linguist must take into consideration both the spelling and the pronunciation' of words when analysing cases of identity of form and diversity of content.