A COURSE IN MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY

Its aims and significance

DEFINITION

Lexicology is the part of linguistics, dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language.

BASIC TERMS

The term "lexicology" is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis meaning "word" and logos which denotes "learning". Thus, the literal meaning of the term "lexicology" is "the science of the word".

1. The term “vocabulary” is used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the words that the language possesses.

The term "word" denotes the basic unit of a language resulting from the association of a particular' meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment. A word therefore is simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.

The general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific features of particular language, is known as general lexicology.

Special lexicology is the .lexicology of a particular language (e.g. English, Russian, etc.) i.e. the study and description of its vocabulary.

Special lexicology may be descriptive and historical.

TWO APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE STUDY

From the course of the Introduction into Linguistics you know that there are two principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of language material, namely the synchronic and the diachronic approach. The term synchronic is composed of two Greek morphemes (syn meaning "together, with", and chronos which denotes "time"). Thus with regard to special lexicology the synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given period of time. Special lexicology that deals with the vocabulary of a particular language at a certain period of time is called special descriptive lexicology.

The term “diachronic" is composed of the Greek morphemes "dia" meaning "through" and chronos meaning "time". Thus the diachronic approach in terms of special lexicology deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time. Special lexicology that deals with the evolution of the vocabulary of a particular language as time goes by is called special historical lexicology.

The two approaches in lexicology, i.e. the synchronic and the diachronic approach should not be contrasted or set one against the other; in fact, they are interconnected and interdependent: every linguistic structure and system exists in a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of a long process of linguistic evolution, the result of the historical development of the language.

Let us look at the words to beg and beggar. Synchronically, these words are related as a simple word (to beg) and a derived word (beggar). The noun beggar is derived from the verb to beg by means of the suffix –ar.

When we approach these words diachronically, however, we learn that the noun beggar was borrowed from old French and the verb to beg appeared in the English language as a result of back derivation, i.e. it was derived from the noun beggar.

LINKS WITH OTHER BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS

Lexicology is linked with phonetics, grammar, stylistics, history of a language and sociolinguistics.

There is a relationship between lexicology and phonetics since phonetics is also concerned with the study of the word, i.e. with the sound of the word. Grammar, which is inseparably bound up with lexicology, is the study of grammatical relations between words. Lexicology is linked with the history of a language since the latter investigates the changes and the development of the vocabulary of a language. There is also a close relationship between lexicology and stylistics. Stylistics is concerned with the study of expressive means and stylistic devices. The expressive means of a language are various lexical forms, i.e. forms of the words that exist in a language for the purpose of intensification of an utterance. A stylistic device is an intentional intensification of some typical structural and semantic property, of a language unit and a word in particular. E.g. the stylistic device of metaphor is defined as the power of realizing two lexical meanings of a word simultaneously. Lexicology is bound up with sociolinguistics since investigates the extra-linguistic or social causes of the changes in the' vocabulary of a language. The word-stock of a language directly and immediately reacts to changes in social life. To illustrate the immediate connection between the development of vocabulary and the extra-linguistic causes a few examples will suffice.

The intense development of science and technology, which is a social, i.e. an extra-linguistic factor, has lately given birth to a great number of new words: computer, radar, sputnik, spaceship, etc.

Thus it is the study 'of the word, its various facets that brings various branches of linguistics together.

THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL VALUE OF LEXICOLOGY

The theoretical value of lexicology becomes obvious if we realize that it forms the study of one of the three main aspects of language, i.e. its vocabulary)', the other two are grammar and sound system. Lexicology came into being to meet the needs of many different branches of applied linguistics, namely of lexicography, literary criticism, standardization of terminology and foreign language teaching. Lexicology helps stimulate a systematic approach to-the facts of vocabulary. It is particularly useful in building up the learner's vocabulary by an effective selection, grouping and analysis of new words. A good knowledge of the system of wordformation furnishes a tool helping the student to guess and retain in his memory the meanings of new words on the basis of their motivation and by comparing and contrasting them with the previously learned elements and patterns. By drawing pupils' attention to the collocability of words the teacher wm' prevent many mistakes. The term collocability has two synonyms: valency and combining power. These terms denote the potential capacity pf words to occur with other words. Look at the verbs to win and to gain. Both may be used ill combination with the noun victory: to win a victory, to gain a victory. But with the word war only win is possible: to win a war. Thus the valency of to win and to gain is different. Knowing the valency of words the teacher of foreign languages will present wordgroups falling into patterns, instead of lists of unrelated items. A good knowledge of the derivational relations between words will enable the foreign languages teacher to introduce new words in wordbuilding clusters. A word-building cluster is a group of words with one and the same root morpheme linked through synchronic derivational relations. For example, the words dog, doggish, dogless, to dog, dogged, doggedly, doggedness, doggy are members of one word-building cluster. If the teacher knows the derivational relations between these words and introduces to his pupils all the members of the cluster, it will make the process of learning these words much easier. We have used the terms morpheme and motivation. A morpheme is defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language unit possessing sound-form and meaning. For instance, the word boiler falls into two morphemes boil- and -er. Both morphemes possess sound form [b ] and [ə] and meaning: boil- means "reach the temperature at which change to gas occurs"; - er means "doer of the action" and "instrument of the action". Like a word a morpheme is a two-facet language unit, an association of a certain meaning with a certain sound-pattern. Unlike a word a morpheme is not an autonomous unit and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of the word. The term motivation is used to denote the relationship existing between the morphemic or phonemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other. There are three main types of motivation: 1) phonetical motivation; 2) morphological motivation and 3) semantic motivation. The word "cuckoo" [kuku] denotes a bird whose call is like its name. Thus there is a certain similarity between the sound form of the word and the sounds the bird produces. The motivation of the word "cuckoo" is phonetical. The derived word "to rethink" is motivated through its morphemic structure which suggests the idea of thinking again. Its motivation is therefore morphological. Look at the compound noun "eyewash". The word has two meanings: 1) a lotion for the eyes (примочка для глаз) and 2) something said or done to deceive a pearson so that he thinks what he sees is good though in fact it is not" (очковтирательство). The first meaning (a lotion for the eyes) is based on the literal meanings of the components, the meanings of the morphemes "eye" - and - "wash", Thus the motivation of the noun "eyewash" in its first meaning is morphological. The second meaning of the word "eyewash" is metaphoric or figurative. In this case the motivation is semantic. Semantic motivation is based on the co-existence of direct and figurative meanings within the semantic structure of the word. In case there is no sychronically perceptible reason for the word having the phonemic shape and morphological composition it has, the word is said to be non-motivated. The difference between a motivated and a non-motivated word is that between a symbol and a sign. The sign points to a meaning. The meaning of a symbol is not arbitrary but depends upon its structure. From the historical point of view motivation changes in the course of time. Words that are non-motivated at present may have lost their motivation due to changes in the vocabulary, their motivation is said to be faded. Let us remember the OE word "hlaford". 'I11e word meant "lord" and was nonmotivated. The word "hlaford" developed as a result of the simplification of the compound word "hlafweard" which meant "хранитель хлеба" and was morphologically motivated through the meanings of the morphemes hlaf- and -weard.

We have just illustrated the importance of a good knowledge of lexicology for the study of the semantic structure of words. Lexicology is also concerned with the study of synonyms. Understanding the difference between synonyms is indispensable when literary texts are used as a basis for acquiring oral skills. Lexicology not only gives a systematic description of the present mat<e-up of the vocabulary, but also helps students master the literary standards of word usage. The correct use of words is part and parcel of expressive and effective speech. Let us compare the verb" to die" and its synonymous phraseological unit, the idiom to kick the bucket.

While discussing the biography of a writer in the classroom you may use the idiom and say: The writer was born in 1905 and kicked the bucket in 1960. The slangy idiom "to kick the bucket" is misplaced in that context. It corresponds to the Russian "сыграть в ящик", "отдать концы". The stylistic reference of the idiom "to kick the bucket" differs from that of the verb "to die". "To die" is stylistically neutral whereas "to kick the bucket" is slangy. The stylistic reference of a word is its reference to this or that functional style (literary, neutral or colloquial). The stylistic reference or the stylistic value of the word is part of the connotational component of the lexical meaning of the word. The lexical meaning of a word is studied in lexicology. Lexical meaning is not homogeneous; it includes denotational and connotation components. The connotational component includes the stylistic value and the emotive charge of the word. The emotive charge of the word is emotive evaluation. Compare the emotive charge of the adjectives "large" and "tremendous". The emotive charge of the word "tremendous" is heavier than that of the word ''large". As to the denotational component of the lexical meaning of the word it is the component which makes communication possible. Users of language cannot have any knowledge of the objects or phenomena of the real world around them unless this knowledge is embodied in words which have essentially the same meaning for all the speakers of that language. Words denote things and concepts. That is why the meaning is called denotational. The branch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of meaning is known as semasiology.

Let us now enumerate all the problems Modem English Lexicology deals with:

1) semasiology, 2) word-groups and phraseological units, 3) word-structure, 4) word-formation, 5) etymological survey of the English word-stock, 6) replenishment of Modem English word-stock, 7) variants and dialects of Modem English, 8) fundamentals of English lexicography, 9) methods and procedures of lexicological analysis.

Lexicology plays a prominent part in the general linguistic training of every philologist by summing up the knowledge acquired at the language lessons. It also imparts the necessary skills of using different kinds of dictionaries and reference books, and prepares for future independent work on increasing and improving one's vocabulary.