4. Supermarket University Type

This model was worked out in American Universities. This type is connected with the credit system of education. Students study academic disciplines and get a number of credits that can be reckoned with another University of the State or even other country. Students get a definite list of disciplines, the majority of which is optional. The more prestigious the University is the more such optional disciplines one can take. There is a kind of educational manager whose job is to supply the process of students` following educational schemes and getting credits and also to control the work of educational mechanism in general. This type is quite flexible and gives conditions for students` independent work.

5. Project University

This type originates in developed countries, especially in the USA in advanced Universities and in best Universities of USSR (Physic Technological University). It supposes familiarizing students with design practice and earl professional training through involving students into the work of the places of their future professional activity after graduation. There is a very slight difference between teachers and students in this type. Team work is necessary here. There are different specialists in this team who have their own goals in the project. It`s important that students get not just universal knowledge, but also project thinking, creativity, communicative and business competence. This type is impossible in mass in large numbers as it is difficult to control.

6. Network University Type

This type of Universities is characterized by working in accordance with common international programs (double diplomas program, joint projects and research programs), producing strategies of country development, development of economy, projects and programs for business companies and corporations, not just teaching future specialists. In such conditions University is not just an educational establishment. It`s a kind of corporation-holding, fulfilling different culture functions.

2. Young People in the Modern World. The Idea of Happiness. Problems of an Individual. Stress.

Young People in the Modern World.

Old people are always saying that the young are not what they were. The same comment is made from generation to generation and it is always true. It has never been truer than it is today. The young are better educated. They have a lot more money to spend and enjoy more freedom. They grow up more quickly and are not so dependent on their parents! They think more for themselves and do not accept the ideals of their elders. Events which the older generation remembers are nothing more than past history. This is as it should be. Every new generation is different from the one that preceded it. Today the difference is very marked indeed.

The old always assume that they know best for the simple reason that they have been around a bit longer. They don’t like to feel that their values are being questioned or threatened. And this is precisely what the young are doing. They are questioning the assumptions of their elders and disturbing their complacency. 'They take leave to doubt that the older generation has created the best of all possible worlds. What they reject more than anything is conformity. Office hours, for instance, are nothing more than enforced slavery. Wouldn't people work best if they were given complete freedom and responsibility? And what about clothing? Who said that all the men in the world should wear suits and convict haircuts? If we turn our minds to more serious matters, who said that human differences can be best solved through conventional politics or by violent means? Why have the older generation so often used violence to solve their problems? Why are they so unhappy and guilt-ridden in their personal lives, so obsessed with mean ambitions and the desire to amass more and more material possessions? Can anything be right with the rat-race? Haven't the old lost touch with all that is important in life?

These are not questions the older generation can shrug off lightly. Their record over the past forty years or so hasn't been exactly spotless. Traditionally, the young have turned to their elders for guidance. Today, the situation might be reversed. The old - if they are prepared to admit it -could learn a thing or two from their children. One of the biggest lessons they could learn is that enjoyment is not ‘sinful’. Enjoinment is a principle one could apply to all aspects of life. It is surely not wrong to enjoy your work and enjoy your leisure; to shed restricting inhibitions. It is surely not wrong to live in the present rather than in the past or future. This emphasis on the present is only to be expected because the young have grown up under the shadow of the bomb: the constant threat of complete annihilation. This is their glorious heritage. Can we be surprised that they should so often question the sanity of the generation that bequeathed it?

The Idea of Happiness.

It has been suggested that there are several factors that contribute towards our happiness. This is an 'equation for happiness' suggested by Martin Seligman, an American based psychologist:

H = S + C + V

H = Happiness S = Set range - (genetics: about 50%) C = Circumstances (8-15%) V = Voluntary Control - (past, present, future)

This all looks very scientific, and is actually based on research findings, but can be explained quite simply:

Set Range/Genetics - There is some evidence to support that we are all born with a certain "set-point" of happiness, determined by our genes. This is supposed to change only slightly, if at all, as we get older. This contributes towards around 50% of our level of happiness.

So, if something dramatic happens, for example, you win the lottery, or break up with your boyfriend or girlfriend, within a year or so (depending on the situation) your happiness level will return to its set point.

Circumstances - There is also some evidence to suggest that the circumstances we live in influence our level of happiness. You don't always have a lot of control over your circumstances (for example, we can't all live in mansions (большой особняк) and drive new cars). Evidence suggests, however, that this accounts for only around 8-15% of our happiness levels, which really isn't that much.

Voluntary Control - This third factor is the most important factor in the equation, because you can control it, and in the process control your happiness. It includes all aspects of your life over which you have a relatively high degree of control, including your thoughts and actions. This includes the way you choose to think about and act on the past, present, and future, and seems to have quite a significant impact on how happy you are - if you do the math, it could be up to 42%!

Past - When thinking about the past, people who are happier pay attention to what is 'good' about the past, rather than focusing on the unhappy times. They are grateful, forgiving, and don't believe that the past will determine what happens in the future.

Future - When it comes to thinking about the future, happy people are flexibly optimistic - what this means is that they are optimistic (in a realistic sense) about how their future is going to be, but if it doesn't turn out that way, they know it's not going to be the end of the world either.

Present - The way you think about and act in the present is also essential in determining how happy you are. This might include things such as taking pleasure in life and your surroundings, building and being in meaningful relationships, and the way we react to things in life, good and bad.

You do Have Control Over Your Happiness

So, you can see from this equation that you do have some control over your happiness. Even though a certain proportion of your happiness is beyond your control, and is determined by genetics and by circumstances (which you can only control to a certain extent), you can increase you happiness level by focusing on those areas in your life that you can control.

You might choose to control your attitude, the way you choose to interpret situations, and the way you think about yourself. If you think about it, and the fact that it could be accountable for around 40% of your happiness, this could make a big difference in your life.

If you cannot change your life, change your attitude to it!

Problems of an Individual

Contemporary society can be marked by growing confusion and doubt in the face of materialism, rapid change and the loss of the familiar values that once formed the basis for social interaction. The result can be less order and meaning in life and more chaos, alienation and loneliness. We are all distinctly aware of the byproducts of destructive lifestyles: divorce, drug and alcohol abuse, violence and suicide.

Alcohol abuse is a pervasive problem: we live in a society that equates the consumption of alcohol with having fun, relaxing, making social situations, complete and reducing tension. Many students come to college having learned to drink in their high school years.

From a very young age, kids are bombarded with advertising messages depicting beautiful, young adults enjoying life – and alcohol. Plus, many parents and other adults use alcohol socially, having beer or wine with dinner, for example. In this setting, alcohol seems harmless enough, so many teens may think, "Why not?" Some reasons that teens use alcohol and other drugs are: curiosity, desire to feel older, to fit in, to please others, to reduce stress and relax, peer pressure, boredom, stress of adjustment, easy availability and low cost of alcohol and sometimes even high frequency of alcohol consumption in the local culture.

Some people drink because they think it will help them escape from their problems. Although this may seem like a good idea, drinking always leads to even bigger problems. Alcohol abuse has many behavioral and physical effects.

Behavioral effects can include: irritability, moodiness, anxieties, loss of judgment, violent behavior, impulsiveness, and inability to cope with the problems mentioned above. Physical effects can include: alterations of muscle coordination, liver damage, heart disease, gastrointestinal irritation, ulcers, etc.

Any alcohol use can result in negative social, interpersonal and legal consequences. Some consequences show up right away, and others build up over long periods of time. Consider that the average teen first tries alcohol around age 13. This is long before the body or mind is ready to handle a powerful drug like alcohol. And the earlier kids start drinking, the more likely they will be to develop a problem with alcohol or drugs later in life.

Drug abuse. Young people are often introduced to drug taking by their friends. It is natural for them to wonder what it's like when their friends offer them a chance to have some "fun" with drugs, and point out that everyone else is doing it. People may be told plenty of stories as to how wonderful the drugs will make them feel. But they are not usually told stories how many young people and even adults do lasting damage to their bodies, or eventually die from continued drug abuse each year.

Many users take drugs to escape from a life that may seem too hard to bear. Drugs may seem the only answer, but they are no answer at all. They simply make the problem worse.

Depending on the type and strength of the drug, all drug-abusers are in danger of developing side effects. Drugs can bring confusing and frightening hallucinations and cause unbalanced emotions or more serious mental disorders. First-time heroin users are sometimes violently sick. Cocaine, even in small amounts, can cause sudden death in some people, due to heartbeat irregularities. Children born to drug-addicted parents can be badly affected. Some drugs can slow, even stop the breathing process, and if someone overdoses accidentally they may become unconscious or even die.

People who start taking drugs are unlikely to do so for long without being found out. Symptoms of even light drug use are drowsiness, moodiness, loss of appetite and, almost inevitably, a high level of deceit. First there's the evidence to hide, but second drugs are expensive and people are not always able to find the money to buy them. Almost inevitably, needing money to pay for drugs leads to crime.

Smoking. If you smoke and you still don't believe that there is a definite link between smoking and bronchial troubles, heart disease and lung cancer, then you are certainly deceiving yourself. No one will accuse you of hypocrisy. Let us just say that you are suffering from a bad case of wishful thinking.

This needn't make you too uncomfortable because you are in good company. Whenever the subject of smoking and health is raised, the governments of most countries hear no evil, see no evil and smell no evil. Admittedly, a few governments have taken timid measures. In Britain, for instance, cigarette advertising has been banned on television.

You don't have to look very far to find out why the official reactions to medical findings have been so lukewarm. The answer is simply money. Tobacco is a wonderful commodity to tax. It's almost like a tax on our daily bread. In tax revenue alone, the government of Britain collects enough from smokers to pay for its entire educational facilities. So while the authorities point out ever so discreetly that smoking may, conceivably, be harmful, it doesn't do to shout too loudly about it.

This is surely the most short-sighted policy you could imagine. While money is eagerly collected in vast sums with one hand, it is paid out in increasingly vaster sums with the other. Enormous amounts are spent on cancer research and on efforts to cure people suffering from the disease. Countless valuable lives are lost. In the long run, there is no doubt that everybody would be much better-off if smoking were banned altogether.

Of course, we are not ready for such drastic action. But if the governments of the world were honestly concerned about the welfare of their people's, you'd think they'd conduct aggressive anti-smoking campaigns. Far from it! The tobacco industry is allowed to spend staggering sums on advertising. Its advertising is as insidious as it is dishonest. We are never shown pictures of real smokers coughing up their lungs early in the morning. That would never do. The advertisements always depict virile, clean-shaven young men. They suggest it is manly to smoke, even positively healthy! Smoking is associated with the great open-air life, with beautiful girls, true love and togetherness. What utter nonsense!

For a start, governments could begin by banning all cigarette and tobacco advertising and should then conduct anti-smoking advertising campaigns of their own. Smoking should be banned in all public places like theatres, cinemas and restaurants. Great efforts should be made to inform young people especially of the dire consequences of taking up the habit.