6.Synonyms.

Synonyms are usually defined as words belonging to one part of speech, close in meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts. Synonyms are characterized by either the semantic relations of equivalence or by the semantic relations of proximity. As the degree of semantic proximity may be different, different types of synonyms can be singled out. Full (total) synonyms, i.e. words characterized by semantic equivalence, are extremely rare.

The degree of semantic proximity is best of all estimated in terms of the aspects of meaning, i.e. the denotational, the connotational, and the pragmatic aspect.

The highest degree of proximity is observed in synonyms which have similar denotational aspects but differ either in the connotational or the pragmatic aspect of meaning.

The difference in connotation may be illustrated by the words famous (known widely, having fame) and notorious (widely known because of something bad, f.e. for being criminal). Thus the word famous implies a positive emotive evaluation, and the word notorious – negative.

The difference in the pragmatic value of words is found in a far greater number of words than the difference in the connotational aspect. It can be observed in synonymic pair consisting of a native word and a borrowed word. In most cases the native word is more informal, whereas the foreign word has a learned or abstract air, f.e. bodily – corporal. In a few cases these synonymic values are reversed, f.e. foe – enemy.

Taking into account the difference of synonyms by three aspects of their meaning, they may be classified into: - stylistic; - idiographic; - idiographic stylistic synonyms.

Stylistic synonymy implies no interchangeability because the underlined situations are different: children-infants, dad – father, etc.

Stylistic synonyms are similar in the denotational aspects of meaning but different in the pragmatic aspect.

Idiographic synonymy presents a lower degree of semantic proximity and is observed when the connotational and pragmatic aspects are similar, but there are certain differences in the denotational aspect of meaning.

Idiographic-stylistic synonymy is characterized by the lower degree of semantic proximity. This type of synonyms includes synonyms which differ both in the denotational and the connotational aspects of meaning: ask – inquire.

Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element – the most general term potentially containing features rendered by all the other members of the synonymic group:

Live – depart – retire – clear out . The word “live” is a dominant.

Characteristic features of the dominant system:

1. High frequency of usage.

2. Broad combinability – ability to be used in combination with various classes of words.

3. Broad general meaning.

4. Lack of connotations.

7.Antonyms.

Antonyms – are a class of word group together on the basis of the semantic relations of opposition. Antonyms are words belonging to one part of speech sharing certain common semantic characteristics. Structurally they can be classified into antonyms of the same root (cheerful-cheerless) and antonyms of different root (day-night). Semantically they can be divided into 1)contradictories 2) contraries 3) incompatibles. Contradictories represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like single-married. These antonyms are mutual opposed. They deny one another. Contraries are antonyms that can be arranged into a series according to the increasing difference in one of their qualities. This may be observed in “cold-hot, cool-warm” which are intermediate members. Thus we may regard antonyms not only cold and hot, but also cold and warm. Incompatibles are antonyms which are characterized by the relations of exclusion. Semantic relations exist among antonyms with a common component of meaning and may be described as the reverse of hyponymy. FE: to say morning is to say not afternoon, not evening. They are members of the multiple-term sets. Mostly antonyms are adjectives which is natural because characteristics are easily compared and contrasted. (old-young, strong-weak). Verbs take second place (open-close). Nouns are not many. Adverbs can be subdivided into 2 groups: 1) Derived from adjectives: lovely, softly. 2) adverbs proper (here-there, ever-never).