Словообразование

Наиболее распространенные суффиксы и приставки существительных, прилагательных, наречий, глаголов. Конверсия.

Лексика

Лексический минимум 1200-1400 лексических единиц. Общеупотребительная лексика, базовая терминология специальности. Знакомство с основными типами словарей, справочной литературой.

UNIT 1

TRANSPORT

land transport – наземный транспорт

water transport – водный транспорт

air transport – воздушный транспорт

transport – транспорт, транспортировать

transportation – транспортировка

goods – товары, груз

vehicle – экипаж, повозка, автомобиль

lorry – грузовик

coach – карета, экипаж, автобус (междугородный)

internal – внутренний

combustion – сгорание

engine – двигатель

source – источник

to pave – мостить

distance – расстояние

to connect – соединять, связывать

slowly – медленно

horsepower – лошадиная сила

to fly – летать

mile – миля

to replace – перемещать, заменять, вытеснять

timber – строительный лес

to operate – действовать, управлять, приводить в движение

capacity – мощность, емкость

reliable – надежный

drawback – недостаток

trouble – поломка, авария, неполадки

readings – показания (на приборе)

to convert – превращать(ся)

urgent – срочный, крайне необходимый

fast – быстрый

bulky – большой, громоздкий

cargo – груз

to combine – соединять, сочетать

across - через

THE HISTORY OF LAND TRANSPORT

Introduction

The word transport means to carry people or goods from place to place. It is also used for the vehicles that carry people or goods - for example, motor transport includes buses, lorries, motor coaches and motor cars. The American word for the same thing is transportation, and the remark "transportation is civilization" was made by an American, the motor-car manufacturer Henry Ford

The history of transport is divided into two stages. The first stage is that in which all forms of transport depended directly on the power of men or animals or on natural forces such as winds and current. The second stage began with the development of the steam engine, which was followed by the electric motor and the internal combustion engine as the main sources of power for transport.

THE WHEEL, STEAM CARRIAGES AND RAILWAYS

One of mankind's earliest and greatest inventions was the wheel. Without it there could be no industry, little transportation or communi­cation, only crude farming, no electric power

Nobody knows when the wheel was invented. There is no trace of the wheel during the Stone Age, and it was not known to the American Indians until the White Man came, hi the Old World it came into use during the Bronze Age, when horses and oxen were used as work animals. At first all wheels were solid discs.

The problem to be solved was to make the wheels lighter and at the same tune keep them strong. At first holes were made in the wheels, and they became somewhat lighter, Then wheels with spokes were made. Finally, the wheel was covered with iron and then with rubber.

Light two-wheeled carriages were used widely in the ancient world. As time passed they were made lighter, stronger, and better. Later people joined together a pair of two-wheeled carts into a four-wheeled vehicle. At first only kings and queens had the privilege of driving in them.

In the West the first steam carriage was invented in France. The three-wheeled machine had the front wheel driven by a two-cylinder steam engine, and carried two people along the road at a walking pace. It was not a great success, as the boiler did not produce enough steam for keeping the carriage going for more than about 15 minutes.

The steam engine appeared in 1763. It was followed by several improved steam road carriages. Their further development was prevented by railway companies The rapid spread of railways in the United Kingdom was due largely to George Stephenson, who was an enthusiast as well as a brilliant engineer,

He demonstrated a locomotive that could run eighteen kilometres an hour and carry passengers cheaper than horses carried them. Eleven years later Stephenson was operating a railway between Stockton and Darlington. The steam locomotive was a success

In Russia the tsar's government showed little interest in railway transportation. After long debates the government, which did not believe in its own engineers, finally decided to invite foreign engineers to submit (представить) projects for building railways in Russia.

Yet at the very time when foreign engineers were submitting their plans, in the Urals a steam locomotive was actually in use. It had been invented and built by the Cherepanovs, father and son, both skilful mechanics and serfs (крепостные). The first Russian locomotive was, of course, a "baby" compared with the locomotives of today. Under the boiler (котел) there were two cylinders which turned the locomotive's two driving wheels (there were four wheels in all), At the front there was a smoke stack (тру­ба), while at the back there was a platform for the driver.

Answer the following questions.

1. What kind of animals were used for work during the Bronze Age?

2. What were the first wheels like?

3. What are the stages in the development of the wheel?

4. How many people did the first steam carriage carry?

5. Who demonstrated the first locomotive in the United Kingdom''

6. Was the Russian government interested in railway transportation?

7. Who were the Cherepanovs?

8. What was the first Russian locomotive like?

9. Are the locomotives widely used in Russia?

10. What kind of locomotives are used in Russia now?

_____________________________________________

THE EARLY DAYS OF THE AUTOMOBILE

1. One of the earliest attempts to propel a vehicle by mechanical power was suggested by Isaac Newton. But the first self-propelled vehicle was constructed by the French military engineer Cugnot in 1763. He built a steam-driven engine which had three wheels, carried two passengers and ran at maximum speed of four miles. The carriage was a great achievement but it was far from perfect and extremely inefficient. The supply of steam lasted ' only 15 minutes and the carriage had to stop every 100 yards to make more steam.

2. In 1825 a steam engine was built in Great Britain The vehicle carried 18 passengers and covered 8 miles in 45 minutes. However, the progress of motor cars met with great opposition in Great Britain. Further development of the motor car lagged because of the restrictions resulting from legislative acts. The most famous of these acts was the Red Flag Act of 1865, according to which the speed of the steam-driven vehicles was limited to 4 miles per hour and a man with a red flag had to walk in front of it.

Motoring really started in the country after the abolition of this act.

3. In Russia there were cities where motor cars were outlawed altogether. When the editor of the local newspaper in the city of Uralsk bought a car, the governor issued these instructions to the police. When the vehicle appears in the streets, it is to be stopped and escorted to the police station, where its driver is to be prosecuted."

4. From 1860 to 1900 was a period of the application of gasoline engines to motor cars in many countries. The first to perfect gasoline engine was N. Otto who introduced the four-stroke cycle of operation. By that time motor cars, got a standard shape and appearance.

In 1896 a procession of motor cars took place from London to Brighton to show how reliable the new vehicles were. In fact, many of the cars broke, for the transmissions were still unreliable and constantly gave trouble.

The cars of that time were very small, two-seated cars with no roof, driven by an engine placed under the seat. Motorists had to carry large cans of fuel and separate spare tyres, for there were no repair or filling stations to serve them.

After World War I it became possible to achieve greater reliability of motor cars, brakes became more efficient. Constant efforts were made to standardize common components. Multi-cylinder engines came into use, most commonly used are four-cylinder engines.

5. Like most other great human achievements, the motor car is not the product of any single inventor. Gradually the development of vehicles driven by internal combustion engine - cars, as they had come to be known, led to the abolition of earlier restrictions. Huge capital began to flow into the automobile industry.

From 1908 to 1924 the number of cars in the world rose from 200 thousand to 20 million, by 1960 it had reached 60 million! No other industry had ever developed at such a rate.

WATER TRANSPORT

1. One of the most important things about water transport is the small effort needed to move floating craft. A heavy boat or a barge weighing several tons can be moved through the water, slowly but steadily, by one man. An aeroplane of the same weight as the barge needs engines of 1,000 horsepower or more in order to fly.

2. The raft made of logs of wood is supposed to be the earliest type of boat.

Rafts seem to be clumsy vessels, although the Norwegian scientist Thor Heyerdahl and his five companions in 1947 made a voyage on the raft Kon-Tiki from Peru to Tuamotu Islands - a distance of 4,500 miles.

3. The water transport in ancient times developed most rapidly on great rivers. The ancient Romans used vessels to carry their armies and supplies to colonies. These ships, usually called galleys, continued to be used in the Mediterranean till 1750.

4. The introduction of the magnetic compass allowed long voyages to be made with much greater safety. At the end of the 15th century, sailing vessels are known to have carried men from Europe to America and round Africa to India.

The middle of the 19th century proved to be the highest point in the development of sailing ships.

5. Steam and Motor Ships. One of the earliest steamboats is known to have been tested at the end of the 18th century. The first steamship to cross the Atlantic was the Savannah, 98-foot ship built in New York, which made the crossing in 1819. Like all the early steamships, it had sails as well as paddles.' By the middle of the 19th century it became possible to build much larger ships for iron and steel began to replace timber.

6. The rapid increase in the size and power of ships was promoted by the industrial revolution.)The industrial countries produced great quantities of goods which were carried to all parts of the world by ships. On their return voyages, the ships brought either raw materials such as cotton, metals, timber for the factories, or grain and foodstuffs for the growing population.

During the same period, a great deal was done to improve ports, and that permitted larger ships to use them and to make loading and unloading faster.

7. Improvements introduced in the 20th century included the smoother and more efficient type of engines called steam turbines and the use of oil fuel instead of coal. Between 1910 and 1920 the diesel engine began to be introduced in ships. These diesel-engined ships are called motor ships. The largest ships, however, are still generally driven by steam turbines. In the late 1950s a few ships were being built which were equipped with nuclear reactors for producing steam.

8. In 1957 the world's first atomic ice-breaker was launched in Leningrad.

This atomic ice-breaker is equipped with an atomic engine owing to which her operating on negligible quantities of nuclear fuel is possible. In spite of the capacity of her engine being 44,000 h.p. it will need only a few grams of atomic fuel a week.

The atomic ice-breaker has three nuclear reactors. The operation of the nuclear reactor is accompanied by powerful radiation. Therefore, the ice­breaker is equipped with reliable means of protection. The ice-breaker is designed for operation in Arctic waters.

AIR TRANSPORT

1. Modern air transport using craft which is heavier than air requires a good deal of power merely to stay in the air. It is for this reason that air transport uses more fuel to carry a ton over a distance of a mile than land or water transport. Another drawback of air transport is that whereas a ship, truck or train whose engines break down can stop until they are mended, an aircraft with the same trouble must land. This means that an aircraft must have several engines and this increases its cost. Safety precautions for air transport also tend to make it expensive. It cannot be relied upon for regular services in places or seasons with low clouds and mist. The great advantage of air transport being its high speed, all civilized countries try to develop it. If you want to save time, you will naturally fly by air.

2. Balloons. The earliest form of air transport was balloons, which are sometimes called "free balloons" because having no engines they are forced to drift by the wind flow. This fact alone makes balloons not reliable enough for carrying people. If they were safer, they would be used more for transportation, but at present the scientists use balloons mostly for obtaining information about the upper atmosphere, its density, and other scientific subjects. Weather balloons are particularly used by meteorologists. They carry instruments whose readings are automatically sent back to the ground by the radio, the position of the balloon being obtained by radar. Small balloons released from air-fields are observed to obtain the direction and strength of the wind.

3. Aeroplanes. The heavier-than-air machines called aeroplanes were rather slow in being adopted for transport. The first aeroplane flight was made in 1884.

World War I quickened the development of aeroplanes enormously. By 1918 they were no longer unreliable things capable of only short flights, but powerful machines able to carry heavy loads at high speeds for long distances. What was more, the ending of the war meant that thousands of aeroplanes and skilled pilots were available.

The first aeroplanes were machines that had been used as bombers. They were quickly converted for use by passengers by fitting extra seats and windows. The first regular public air service from London to Paris was started in August.

4. During World War II the value of aeroplanes for carrying heavy loads was recognized. This led after the war to an increase in the practice of sending goods by air. Air freight is expensive but is often thought worth while for such goods as early vegetables, fruit and flowers, as well as for things urgently needed such as spare parts for machinery, medical supplies, films and photographs. Some parts of the world are hundreds of miles from a road, railway or waterway, and air transport is the only possible kind of transport. Such places are kept supplied wholly by air.

5. After World War II, bigger and faster airliners were introduced. Jet-propelled aircraft were first used in 1950. Air transport is very valuable for emergency medical work. The most important use of air transport besides carrying passengers is carrying mail. If the letters are sent by air mail, they are not long in coming. Although it is unlikely that aircraft will ever replace ships for carrying heavy and bulky cargoes such as oil, coal, minerals, grain and machinery, air transport is already proving a serious rival to passenger ships on some routes.

6. Helicopters and Hovercraft.¹ Helicopters are very useful in places where there is no room for long, flat runways.² Modern turbo-jet airliners need a run of nearly two miles long to take off, but helicopters can use small fields, platforms mounted on ships and the flat tops of buildings. Helicopters were first introduced for regular airline service in 1947. Later, helicopters were used for carrying passengers and mail on short routes, and for taking airline passengers between the centres of cities and the main airports.

7. While helicopters gain in needing very little space for taking-off and landing, they lose because the speed at which they move forward is quite low. So the problem was to develop an aircraft combining the advantages of the helicopter with the high speed of an ordinary aircraft. If the designers could develop such a machine the problem would be solved. So for this purpose the hovercraft was designed. Hovercrafts are likely to be useful for ferry services - for example, in ferrying motor cars across the English Channel. They may also be useful for travel in roadless countries.

UNITE 2

MODERN BUILDING MATERIALS

METALS AS BUILDING MATERIALS

The history of building in iron and steel is hardly more than a hundred years old. The construction of the first railways has giver, considerable impetus to cast and wrought iron production. The commonest quality of steel for building construction is that known as mild steel (m. s.). Several qualities of high tensile steel are widely used everywhere. They vary both in their chemical composition and their mechanical properties.

The elements used for most steel structures are the hot-rolled sections, produced in a great variety by the rolling mills.

Aluminium is the most important of the light metals used in the building industry. Magnesium is still lighter, but it has not yet become a building material. It is used only as an alloying metal in conjunction, with aluminium. The major characteristics of aluminium in which the architect is interested are its durability and its light weight.

Glass is now generally employed in the construction of industrial buildings, office blocks and schools. In recent years it has eclipsed all other materials for heat and sound insulation purposes. Plastics are a new building material. Nearly all the plastics are compounds of such simple elements as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sometimes nitrogen. The characteristics of the various plastics depend upon the way in which these elements are combined. Plastics are used where the older materials are not satisfactory, or for the development of entirely new uses.

METALS

property – свойство

metallurgy – металлургия

separation – разделение, отстояние

dense – плотный

arrangement – расположение

regularly – регулярно, правильно

to slide – скользить

malleable – ковкий, податливый, способный деформироваться

bend – гнуть

to fracture – ломать

ductile – эластичный, ковкий

to draw – волочить, тянуть

wire – проволока

lead – свинец

iron – железо , чугун

grain – зерно

to depend – зависеть

size – размер, величина

shape – форма, формировать

composition – состав

coarse – грубый, крупный

treatment – обработка

quenching – закалка

tempering - отпуск после закалки, нормализация

annealing – отжиг, отпуск

rolling – прокатка

to hammer – ковать (например, молотом)

extrusion – экструзия

metal fatigue – усталость металла

creep – ползучесть

stress – давление, напряжение

failure – повреждение, разрушение

vessel – сосуд, котел, судно

lathe – токарный станок

milling machine – фрезерный станок

shaper – строгальный станок

grinder – шлифовальный станок

to melt – плавить, плавиться, расплавить

to cast – отливать, отлить

mould – форма (для отливки)

Metals are materials most widely used in industry because of their properties. The study of the production and properties of metals is known as metallurgy.

The separation between the atoms in metals is small, so most metals are dense. The atoms are arranged regularly and can slide over each other. That is why metals are malleable (can be deformed and bent without fracture) and ductile (can be drawn into wire). Metals vary greatly in their properties. For example, lead is soft and can be bent by hand, while iron can only be worked by hammering at red heat.

The regular arrangement of atoms in metals gives them a crystalline structure. Irregular crystals are called grains. The properties of the metals depend on the size, shape, orientation, and composition of these grains. In general, a metal with small grains will be harder and stronger than one with coarse grains.

Heat treatment such as quenching, tempering, or annealing controls the nature of the grains and their size in the metal. Small amounts of other metals (less than 1 per cent) are often added to a pure metal. This is called alloying and it changes the grain structure and properties of metals.

All metals can be formed by drawing, rolling, hammering and extrusion, but some require hot-working. Metals are subject to metal fatigue and to creep (the slow increase in length under stress) causing deformation and failure. Both effects are taken into account by engineers when designing, for example, airplanes, gas-turbines, and pressure vessels for high-temperature chemical processes. Metals can be worked using machine-tools such as lathe, milling machine, shaper and grinder.

The ways of working a metal depend on its properties. Many metals can be melted and cast in moulds, but special conditions are required for metals dial react with air.

А) General understanding:

1. What are metals and what do we call metallurgy?

2. Why are most metals dense?

3. Why are metals malleable?

4. What is malleability?

5. What are grains?

6. What is alloying?

7. What is crystalline structure?

8. What do the properties of metals depend on?

9. What changes the size of grains in metals?

10. What are the main processes of metal forming?

11. How are metals worked?

12. What is creeping?

В) Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. свойства металлов

2. расстояние между атомами

3. правильное расположение

4. сильно отличаются по своим свойствам

5. кристаллическая структура

6. размер зерен

7. форма зерен

8. закалка

9. отжиг

10. волочение

11. прокатка

12. ковка

13. экструзия

14. структура и свойства зерна

15. горячая обработка

16. усталость металла

17. ползучесть металла

18. плавка и отливка в формы

19. способы обработки металлов

С) Translate into English:

1. Металлы — плотные материалы потому, что между атомами в металлах малое расстояние.

2. Металлы имеют кристаллическую структуру из-за Правильного расположения атомов.

3.Чем меньше зерна, тем тверже металл.

4. Закалка и отжиг изменяют форму и размер зерен в Металлах.

5. Легирование изменяет структуру зерен и свойства металлов.

6. Металл деформируется и разрушается из-за усталости и ползучести.

STEEL

alloy – сплав

carbon – углерод

stiff – жесткий

to corrode – разъедать, ржаветь

rusty – ржавый

stainless – нержавеющий

to resist – сопротивляться

considerably – значительно, гораздо

tough – крепкий, жесткий, прочный, выносливый

forging – ковка

welding – сварка

brittle – хрупкий, ломкий

cutting tools – режущие инструменты

surgical instruments – хирургические инструменты

blade – лезвие

spring – пружина

inclusion – включение

to affect – влиять

manganese – марганец

silicon – кремний

rust-proof – нержавеющий

nitrogen – азот

tungsten – вольфрам

The most important metal in industry is iron and its alloy — steel. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is strong and stiff, but corrodes easily through rusting, although stainless and other special steels resist corrosion. The amount of carbon in steel influences its properties considerably. Steels of low carbon content (mild steels) are quite ductile and are used in the manufacture of sheet iron, wire, and pipes. Medium-carbon steels containing from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent carbon are tougher and stronger and are used as structural steels. Both mild and medium-carbon steels are suitable for forging and welding. High-carbon steels contain from 0.4 to 1.5 per cent carbon, are hard and brittle and are used in cutting tools, surgical instruments, razor blades and springs. Tool steel, also called silver steel, contains about 1 per cent carbon and is strengthened and toughened by quenching and tempering.

The inclusion of other elements affects the properties of the steel: manganese gives extra strength and toughness. Steel containing 4 per cent silicon is used for transformer cores or electromagnets because it has large grains acting like small magnets. The addition of chromium gives extra strength and corrosion resistance, so we can get rust-proof steels. Heating in the presence of carbon or nitrogen-rich materials is used to form a hard surface on steel (case-hardening). High-speed steels, which are extremely important in machine-tools, contain chromium and tungsten plus smaller amounts of vanadium, molybdenum and other metals.

А) General understanding:

1. What is steel?

2. What are the main properties of steel?

3. What are the drawbacks of steel?

4. What kinds of steel do you know? Where are they used?

5. What gives the addition of manganese, silicon and chromium to steel?

6. What can be made of mild steels (medium-carbon steels, high-carbon steels)?

7. What kind of steels can be forged and welded?

8. How can we get rust-proof (stainless) steel?

9. What is used to form a hard surface on steel?

10. What are high-speed steels alloyed with?

В) Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. сплав железа и углерода

2. прочный и жесткий

3. легко коррозирует

4. нержавеющая сталь

5. низкое содержание углерода

6. ковкость

7. листовое железо, проволока, трубы

8. конструкционные стали

9. пригодны для ковки и сварки

10. твердый и хрупкий

11. режущие инструменты

12. хирургические инструменты

13. инструментальная сталь

14. упрочнять

15. добавление марганца (кремния, хрома, вольфрама, молибдена, ванадия)

PLASTICS

carbon – углерод

flexible – гибкий

fibre – нить, волокно

chain – цепь

identical – одинаковый, идентичный

molecule – молекула

branch – разветвленный

to synthesize – синтезировать

chemicals – химические вещества

to soften – смягчать

cellulose – клетчатка, целлюлоза

wax – воск

thermosetting plastics – термореактивные пластмассы

to harden – делать твердым

coil – спираль

stretched – растянуть

transparent – прозрачный

rubber – резина, каучук

to decompose – разлагаться

soft-drink – безалкогольный напиток

to subject – подвергать

polyurethane – полиуретан

resin – смола

similar – сходный, подобный

sufficient – достаточный

to prevent – предотвращать

Plastics are non-metallic, synthetic, carbon-based materials. They can be moulded, shaped, or extruded into flexible sheets, films, or fibres. Plastics are synthetic polymers. Polymers consist of long-chain molecules made of large numbers of identical small molecules (monomers). The chemical nature of a plastic is defined by the monomer (repeating unit) that makes up the chain of the polymer. Polyethene is a polyolefin; its monomer unit is ethane (formerly called ethylene). Other categories are acrylics (such as polymethylmethaсrylate), styrenes (such as polystyrene), vinys (such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)), polyesters, polyurethanes, polyamides (such as nylons), polyethers, acetals, phenolics, cellulosics, and ammo resins. The molecules can be either natural — like cellulose, wax, and natural rubber — or synthetic — in polyethene and nylon. In co-polymers, more than one monomer is used.

The giant molecules of which polymers consist may be linear, branched, or cross-linked, depending on the plastic. Linear and branched molecules are thermoplastic (soften when heated), whereas cross-linked molecules are thermosetting (harden when heated).

Most plastics a synthesized from organic chemicals or from natural gas or coal. Plastics are light-weight compared to metals and are good electrical insulators. The best insulators now are epoxy resins and eath. Teflon or polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE) was first made in 1938 and was produced commercially in 1950.

Plastics can be classified into several broad types:

1. Thermoplastics soften on heating, then harden again when cooled., Thermoplastic molecules are also coiled and because of this they are flexible and easily stretched.

Typical example of thermoplastics is polystyrene. Polystyrene resins ate characterized by high resistance to chemical and mechanical stresses at low temperatures and by very low absorption of water. These properties make the polystyrenes especially suitable for radio-frequency insulation and for parts used at low temperatures in refrigerators and in airplanes. PET (polyethene terephthalate) is a transparent thermoplastic used for soft-drinks bottles. Thermoplastics are also viscoelastic, that is, they flow (creep) under stress. Examples are polythene, polystyrene and PVC.

2. Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) do not soften when heated, and with strong heating they decompose. In most thermosets final cross-linking, which fixes the molecules, takes place after the plastic has already been formed.

Thermosetting plastics have a-higher density than thermoplastics. They are less flexible, more difficult to stretch, and are less subjected to creep. Examples of thermosetting plastics include urea-formaldehyde or polyurethane and epoxy resins, most polyesters, and phenolic polymers such as phenol-formaldehyde resin.

3. Elastomers are similar to thermoplastics but have sufficient cross-linking between molecules to prevent stretching and creep.

А) General understanding.

1. What is the definition of plastics?

2. What is the basic chemical element in plastics formula?

3. What do polymers consist of?

4. What are long-chain molecules made of?

5. What are the main types of polymers?

6. Give examples of plastics belonging to these types.

7. What plastics are the best electrical insulators?

8. Describe the difference between thermoplastics and thermosets.

9. What are the main types of structures of polymers?

10. What are the most important properties of plastics?

11. Give the examples of various uses of plastics be cause of their characteristic properties.

В) Find English equivalents in the text:

1. синтетические полимеры

2. молекулы с длинными цепями

3. характерные свойства полимера

4. синтезируются из органических химических веществ

5. хороший электрический изолятор

6. размягчаться при нагревании

7. затвердевать при охлаждении

8. гибкий и легко растяжимый

9. течь под нагрузкой

10. более высокая плотность

11. менее подвержены ползучести

12. достаточная взаимосвязь между молекулами

С) Translate into English:

1. Длинные цепи молекул полимеров состоят из одинаковых небольших молекул мономеров.

2. Сополимеры состоят из двух и более мономеров.

3. Пластмассы можно получать в виде листов, тонких плёнок, волокон или гранул.

4. Молекулы полимеров могут быть линейными, ветвящимися или с по­перечными связями.

5. Малый вес пластмасс и хорошие электроизоляционные свойства по­зволяют использовать их в радиоэлектронике и электроприборах, а также вме­сто металлов.

6. Молекулы термопластов имеют извитую форму и, поэтому, они гиб­кие и легко растяжимы.

7. Эластомеры имеют большое число поперечных связей между молеку­лами.

NEW BUILDING MATERIALS

When a horizontal beam is supported at each end (1) but not in the middle, it bends. The bending is caused by the beam's own weight and by the weight of anything that it has to support. When it bends, the bottom surface is normally in tension; (2) it is pulled in the direction of its length. If the total load is too heavy, the beam will break, and if it is a concrete beam, its chief weakness is in the lower surface, which is in tension.

Steel rods may be placed inside concrete beams while the mixture is still wet, and if these rods have hooked ends, they will grip the concrete (3) and tend to prevent stretching. 'The steel and concrete together make a good combination to resist compression and tension, and such material is known as reinforced concrete or ferro-concrete.

If the concrete is in the form of a beam which is to be used in a horizontal position, these rods can be placed inside it, but they need not go through the middle. Most of the tension will be along the lower surface, and therefore that is the best place for the rods.

Because concrete does not resist tension well,(4) a system is now in use in which it is not stretched. This is not as difficult to arrange as it seems to be. The concrete beam is compressed along its length by means of. steel rods inside it; these rods remain in the beam and therefore i concrete is always compressed unless some greater force tries to pull it apart. As long as the beam is not lengthened more than it is already compressed, the concrete will never be in tension.

Suppose, for example, that the compression in the concrete (caused by the sled rods) is 1,000 pounds per square inch and that the force pulling the beam lengthways (5) when it is in position is 700 pounds per square inch. In that case the concrete is still compressed by a force equal to 300 pounds per square inch, and so it is not in tension at all.(6)

Such material is called prestressed concrete. Holes are often left in the beam when it is made; then the steel rods are placed in the holes and fixed at one end. Nuts on screws at the other end are turned to compress the concrete, or the beam may be compressed by powerful machinery. There is another method of preventing tension from arising in a beam. If it is arched, and if its ends press against a firm abutment, any pressure on its top surface will lend to compress it instead of putting the lower edge in tension. This is therefore a good system to use with a concrete beam.

The steel rods which pass through an arch may themselves be straight, so that in the middle of the arch they are near the lower-surface. If the beam is straight, the same kind of result may be obtained by allowing the rods to be curved or bent, so that they pass along the lower surfaces in the middle of the beam.

Prestressed concrete can be used where ordinary concrete would fail.(7) High buildings arc now made with this material and its use has greatly increased. Smaller houses in the city gradually give place to big blocks owing to the great demand for land. In northern countries, where the weather is a constant nuisance to the citizens, even the streets may be roofed over.(8)

Concrete is a bad conductor o1 heat; moreover, it does not catch fire.(9) These are two great advantages in a building, and especially in a high building. Even if the furniture or the wooden floors are set on fire, and the surfaces of the concrete walls are healed the interior pints of the walls do not become very hoi for the concrete does nut conduct heat. The danger of fire in dwelling places is therefore decreasing, and the use of electricity instead of gas and oil for lighting and healing helps in this matter.

ПРИМЕЧАНИЯ:

(1) is supported at each end- имеет опоры на концах (2) in tension - в состоянии растяжения

(3) will grip the concrete - схватят бетон

(4) does not resist tension well - довольно плохо сопротивляется растяжению

(5) pulling the beam lengthways - растягивающая балку в продольном направлении

(6) it is not in tension at all - совсем без растяжения

(7) where ordinary concrete would tail - где обычный бетон разрушается

(8) even the streets may be roofed over - даже целые улицы могут быть перекрыты

(9) to catch fire – загораться

A) Translate into Russian the following verbs and Participles:

to support supporting is supported

to stretch stretching is stretched

to pull pulling is pulled

to tension tensioning is tensioned

to place placing is placed

To compress compressing is compressed

to lengthen lengthening is lengthened

to prestress prestressing is prestressed

to fix fixing is fixed

To prevent preventing is prevented

to heat healing is heated

B) Translate into Russian the following phrases:

own weight

hooked end

chief weakness

along its length

interior part

dwelling-places

C) Answer the following questions:

l. Why is it called reinforced concrete?

2. What is prestressed concrete?

3. What is concrete?

4. Why docs concrete not catch fire?

_________________________________________________

METALS IN PERSPECTIVE

Man has always tried to improve his standard of living by changing his surroundings and by making tools to simplify the everyday tasks necessary for his existence. At first, the only materials he could use were those he could see around him - stone, wood and so on. He survived in competition with other animals because of his abilities with his hands and their coordination with his brain. Because he did not have the strength and speed of some animals, his survival depended on his skilful use of tools to get food and to keep him warm and safe.

Since the Stone Age, man has found many more materials that he can work with to his advantage. His ingenuity has led him to discover ' the potential of many natural products. However, the materials that helped him most to develop were the metals. Their characteristics of strength coupled with the ease With which they can be shaped made metals of vital importance in the technology of the past. The exploitation of other properties, such as electrical and thermal conductivity, made it possible to develop high technologies appropriate to the fields of space travel, communications and nuclear engineering.

The first metals which man discovered were copper and gold, because they occur naturally in the pure stale. They were used because they could be shaped easily, gold being specially soft. The discovery that copper could be obtained in sufficient quantities for beating into vessels and weapons was an important step in the use of metals, but the discovery that copper ore would produce copper was probably accidental. Perhaps a block of ore was used in a pottery kiln, and the metal was found after the fire had cooled.

Copper had been smelted and used for two thousand years before the potential of iron became evident. In the course of smelting activities, no doubt iron ores and the substance resulting from smelting them were encountered.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fiberglass – стекловолокно

fibre – волокно, нить

reinforced – упрочненный

expansion – расширение

matrix – матрица

ceramic – керамический

specific strength – удельная прочность

specific stiffness – удельная жесткость

anisotropic – анизотропный

The combinations of two or more different materials are called composite materials. They usually have unique mechanical and physical properties because they combine the best properties of different materials. For example, a fibre-glass reinforced plastic combines the high strength of thin glass fibres with the ductility and chemical resistance of plastic. Nowadays composites are being used for structures such as bridges, boat-building etc.

Composite materials usually consist of synthetic fibres within a matrix, a material that surrounds and is tightly bound to the fibres. The most widely used type of composite material is polymer matrix composites (PMCs). PMCs consist of fibres made of a ceramic material such as carbon or glass embedded in a plastic matrix. Usually the fibres make up about 60 per cent by volume. Composites with metal matrices or ceramic matrices are called metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), respectively.

Continuous-fibre composites are generally required for structural applications. The specific strength (strength-to-density ratio) and specific stiffness (elastic modulus-to-density ratio) of continuous carbon fibre PMCs, for example, can be better than metal alloys have. Composites can also have other attractive properties, such as high thermal or electrical conductivity and a low coefficient of thermal expansion.

Although composite materials have certain advantages over conventional materials, composites also have some disadvantages. For example, PMCs and other composite materials tend to be highly anisotropic—that is, their strength, stiffness, and other engineering properties are different depending on the orientation of the composite material. For example, if a PMC is fabricated so that all the fibres are lined up parallel to one another, then the PMC will be very stiff in the direction parallel to the fibres, but not stiff in the perpendicular direction. The designer who uses composite materials in structures subjected to multidirectional forces, must take these anisotropic properties into account. Also, forming strong connections between separate composite material components is difficult.

The advanced composites have high manufacturing costs. Fabricating composite materials is a complex process. However, new manufacturing techniques are developed. It will become possible to produce composite materials at higher volumes and at a lower cost than is now possible, accelerating the wider exploitation of these materials.

UNITE 3

SOURCES OF ENERGY

ELECTRIC POWER

Power – энергия, мощность

to generate – генерировать, производить, создавать

to convert – преобразовывать

to fall – падать, уменьшать

conversion – преобразование, конверсия

to drive – приводить в движение, управлять

burning coal – сгорание угля

fossil fuels – ископаемое топливо, минеральное топливо

steam – пар

internal combustion engine – двигатель внутреннего сгорания

fissioning – распад

lead – свинец

to transmit – передавать

alternating current – переменный ток

measuring – измерение

electromotive force – электродвижущая сила

inexpensive – недорогой

to improve – улучшать

standard of living – уровень жизни

industrial – промышленный

purpose – цель, потребность

Electric power is generated by converting heat, light, chemical energy, or mechanical energy to electrical energy. Most electrical energy is produced in large power stations by the conversion of mechanical energy or heat. The mechanical energy of falling water is used to drive turbine generators in hydroelectric stations, and the heat derived by burning coal, oil, or other fossil fuels is used to operate steam turbines or internal-combustion engines that drive electric generators. Also, the heat from the fissioning of uranium or plutonium is used to generate steam for the turbine generator in a nuclear power plant.

Electricity generated by the conversion of light or chemical energy is used mainly for portable power sources. For example, a photoelectric cell converts the energy from light to electrical energy for operating the exposure meter in a camera, and a lead-acid battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy for starting an automobile engine.

Electric power produced in large power stations generally is transmitted in using an alternating current that reverses direction 25, 50, or 60 times per second. The basic unit for measuring electric power is the watt the rate at which work is being done in an electric circuit in which the current is one ampere and the electromotive force is one volt. Ratings for power plants are expressed in kilowatts (1,000 watts) or megawatts (1 million watts). Electric energy consumption normally is given in kilowatt-hours - that is, the number of kilowatts used times the number of hours of use. Electricity is clean, inexpensive, and easily transmitted over long distances. Since the 1880's, electricity has had an ever-increasing role in improving the standard of living. It now is used to operate lights, pumps, elevators, power tools, furnaces, refrigerators, air-conditioners, radios, television sets, industrial machinery, and many other kinds of equipment. It has been counted that in developed countries about 43% of the electric power is generally used for industrial purposes, 32% in homes, and 21% in commercial enterprises.

1. General understanding:

1. What is an electric power? How is it produced?

2. How is electricity used mainly?

3. What is the basic unit for measuring electric power?

4. What does kilowatt-hours means?

5. What advantages of electricity can you name?

2. Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. электроэнергия

2. преобразование тепла, света, химической или механической энергии

3. падающая вода

4. гидроэлектростанции

5. сжигание угля, нефти или другого топлива

6. паровая турбина

7. двигатель внутреннего сгорания

8. распад урана и плутония

9. атомные электростанции

10)портативные источники энергии

11) автомобильный двигатель

12) переменный ток

13) измерение

14) электрическая цепь

15) электродвижущая сила

16) легко передается на длинные расстояния

17) улучшение уровня жизни

18) посчитано, что…

19) промышленные цели

NATURE OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

modern - современный

conception – концепция

constitution – строение

positive - положительный

charge – заряд

tremendous – огромный

negatively charged – отрицательно заряженный

conductor – проводник

to overlap -

to pass – проходить

wire – проволока, провод

considerably – значительно

current – ток

to flow – течь

electric circuit – электрическая цепь

In the modem conception of the constitution of matter it is composed of atoms. The atom is made up of a positive nucleus surrounded by negative charges of electricity, called electrons, which revolve about the nucleus at tremendous speeds. The nucleus consists of a number of protons, each with a single positive charge, and_, except for hydrogen, one or more neutrons, which have no charge. The atom is neutral when it contains equal numbers of electrons and protons. A negatively charged body contains more electrons than protons. A positively charged body is one which contains fewer electrons than its normal number. When the two ends of a conductor are connected to two points at different potentials, such as the terminals of a battery, we say that there is an electric current in the conductor. What actually happens?

The conductor has equal numbers of positive and negative charges in its atoms, and we want to know how the charges can be made to produce a current. The atoms in metals are packed so closely that they overlap to some extent, so that it is comparatively easy for the outer electrons to pass from one atom to another if a small force is applied to them. The battery causes a potential difference between the ends of the wire, and thus provides forces that make the negative electrons in the wire move toward the point of higher potential. This electron flow toward the positive electrode is the electric current. Naturally materials differ considerably in the ease with which electrons can be made to migrate from atom to atom.

The current will not flow unless there is an electric circuit. The magnitude of the current depends simply on the rate of flow of electrons along the conductor.

SOURCES OF POWER

The industrial progress of mankind is based on power: power for industrial plants, machines, heating and lighting systems, transport, communication. In fact, one can hardly find a sphere where power is not required.

At present most of the power required is obtained mainly from two sources. One is from the burning of fossil fuels, i. e. coal, natural gas and oil. The second way of producing electricity is by means of generators that get their power from steam or water turbines. Electricity so produced then flows through transmission lines to houses, industrial plants, enterprises, etc.

It should be noted, however, that the generation of electricity by these conventional processes is highly uneconomic. Actually, only about 40 per cent of heat in the fuel is converted into electricity. Besides, the world resources of fossil fuels are not ever-lasting. On the other hand, the power produced by hydroelectric plants, even if increased many times, will be able to provide for only a small fraction of the power required in the near future. Therefore much effort and thought is being given to other means of generating electricity.

One is the energy of hot waters. Not long ago we began utilizing hot underground water for heating and hot water supply, and in some cases, for the generation of electricity.

Another promising field for the production of electric power is the use of ocean tides. Our engineers are engaged in designing tidal power stations of various capacities. The first station utilizing this principle began operating in the Soviet Union on me Barents Sea in 1968.

The energy of the sun which is being used in various ways represents a practically unlimited source.

Using atomic fuel for the production of electricity is highly promising. It is a well-known fact, that one pound of uranium contains as much energy as three million pounds of coal, so cheap power can be provided wherever it is required. However, the efficiency reached in generating power from atomic fuel is not high, namely 40 per cent.

No wonder, therefore, that scientists all over the world are doing their best to find more efficient ways of generating electricity directly from the fuel. They already succeeded in developing some processes which are much more efficient, as high as 80 per cent, and m creating a number of devices capable of giving a higher efficiency. Scientists are hard at work trying to solve these and many other problems.

1. General understanding:

1. Where is power used now?

2. How is power obtained at present?

3. What disadvantages of conventional processes can you name?

4. What means of generating electricity do you know?

5. What can you say about using atomic fuel for production of electricity?

6. What do the scientists do to find efficient ways of generating electricity?

2. Find the following word combinations and phrases in the text:

1. промышленный прогресс человечества

2. отопительные и осветительные системы

3. едва ли можно назвать сферу, где энергия не используется

4. в основном из двух источников

5. сгорание топлива

6. посредством генераторов

7. линии передач

8. крайне неэкономично

9. преобразуется в электричество

10)не бесконечны

11) даже если увеличить во много раз

12) энергия горячей воды

13) энергия солнца

14) практически неограниченный источник

15) атомное топливо

16) дешевая энергия

17) более эффективные пути получения энергии

18) решить эту и многие другие проблемы

HYDROGEN — SOURCE OF POWER

Scientists consider hydrogen a very promising energy source. The reserves of hydrogen are practically unlimited. Per unit of weight it contains almost three times more thermal energy than benzene. Besides, hydrogen can be used as fuel in transport, industry and home.

Hydrogen is easy to transport and store. It can be transported over large distances using conventional pipelines. It can be accumulated and kept for a long time either in conventional or natural reservoirs.

Scientists have found many ways of producing hydrogen — basically from ordinary water. And large volumes of this fuel can be obtained from coal, whose global reserves are tremendous. There is also an idea of using nuclear power plants to generate hydrogen. Scientists hope to use the energy of the sun, wind and tides to obtain hydrogen.

In several countries car engines fed by hydrogen have been tested successfully. Tests have also shown that adding five to ten per cent hydrogen to benzene increases engine efficiency by 40-45 per cent.

What is still holding back the use of hydrogen as fuel, and what has to be done in order to apply it extensively in the economy? The main reason is that now it is more expensive than mineral fuels, but in the near future hydrogen can be made cheaper to obtain. This new kind of energy opens up new prospects in aviation, metallurgy and some other industries.

A)Translate from Russian into English:

1) многообещающий источник энергии;

2) практически неисчерпаемы;

3) на единицу веса;

4) обычный трубопровод;

5) может накапливаться и храниться;

6) много путей получения водорода;

7) большой объем;

8) мировые запасы огромны;

9) энергия солнца, ветра и приливов;

10) работающие на водороде;

11) добавление от 5 до 10 процентов водорода;

12) тормозит использование водорода как топлива;

13) ближайшее будущее;

14) открывает новые перспективы.

ATOMIC ENERGY

There are many sources of power. Wind and water are the oldest ones. For centuries coal, oil, wind and water were widely used by man. They were used to produce steam and electricity.

Our time is the age of atomic energy. Scientists of many countries have been working hard for more than a century to find out the secret of the atom. Now the energy of the atom is applied to all the fields of man's activity.

The atom is the smallest piece of the substance which can exist independently. Atoms are electrically neutral, having no electric charge in their normal state. An atom consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. An electron is very small and it has a very small mass. It is negatively charged. The nucleus consists of a number of protons, each with a single positive charge and one or more neutrons, which have no charge. The amount of electricity of any proton is exactly the same as that of an electron. That is why all the atoms are electrically neutral. The electrical nature of atoms is only evident when one starts breaking them into pieces, electrons and others.

At the same time with large atomic stations smaller mobile electricity producing units have been created based on the discovery of radioactive sources - isotopes. Mobile nuclear installations may be carried by rail and then by transporters to the out-of-the-way regions even in areas having no roads. Such a station according to estimates can operate without being recharged for two years.

Today scientists are looking for new more efficient nuclear processes of producing energy. But it was only lately that the physicists understood that the process of producing tremendous energy by stars, including our Sun, was the very process they were looking for. Now we know that this thermonuclear process is called fusion and it takes place at fantastically high temperatures. It can be done only by imitating on the Earth the process that makes the Sun shine.

There are many difficult problems to overcome before thermonuclear power stations based on this process can become a reality, but the problem of fuel supply is the least of them: the oceans of the Earth are practically an inexhaustible source of deuterium which plays the decisive part in the fusion process and its extraction from sea water is neither complicated nor expensive.

In short, peaceful uses of atomic energy are vast — but we must stop using it on weapons of mass annihilation.

________________________________________________________________

MATTER AND ENERGY

Before considering the modern views in regard to composition of atoms, it is advisable to review briefly the concepts of matter and energy which are fundamental in all branches of science. A strictly accurate definition of matter is difficult to formulate. Our experience and common sense furnish us with a conception of matter. Matter occupies space; it has inertia, that is, it requires force to set it in motion; it is the stuff of which the universe is made. Energy, on the other hand, is nonmaterial; we become conscious of it only when it is associated with matter.

A stone held in the air is different from the same stone resting on the earth; for by allowing the former to drop we can obtain work from it, drive a nail, or crush grain. The stone held away from the earth is said to have potential energy, it gives it up when it falls; and to raise it from the earth back to its original position, work must be done upon it. Energy manifests itself in work. We are familiar with'other forms of energy - heat, light, electrical energy, nuclear energy and sound.

Matter and energy are always associated. When any change occurs, there is always a change in the energy; there may or may not be a change in the matter. From this point of view, we can define physical and chemical change; if the change consists solely in energy it is physical, if the matter changes it is chemical.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

The energy for operating a nuclear power plant comes from the heat released during the fissioning of uranium or plutonium atoms in a nuclear reactor. This fission heat is used to generate steam, which drives a turbine generator. Thus, there are two main differences between a nuclear power plant and a steam-electric power plant the nuclear plant uses a nuclear fuel instead of a fossil fuel, and it uses a nuclear reactor instead of a boiler. The fissioning of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 atoms - the primary nuclear fuels - is caused by the impacts of neutrons on these atoms. The fission process not only produces heat but also several additional neutrons that can cause fissioning of other uranium-235 or plutonium-239 atoms. Thus, by proper arrangement of the atoms of the fuel, a sustained chain reaction can be maintained to provide a steady source of heat for operating a power plant. This chain reaction is controlled by regulating the number and the energy of the neutrons as they proceed from one fission reaction to another.

There are various types of nuclear reactors. The major differences between them are the form of the fuel, the methods for controlling the number and energy of the neutrons, and the type of liquid or gas used to remove the heat from the reactor core.

UNITE 4

SCEINCE AND ATOMS

ATOM FOR PEACE

research – исследование, изучение

to celebrate – отмечать, праздновать

anniversary – годовщина

establishment – учреждение

trend – направление, тенденция

limitless – неограниченный

adjacent – смежный

to facilitate – способствовать

application – применение, приложение

In 1986 the Joint Nuclear Research Institute at Dubna celebrated its 30th anniversary. The Institute is a unique establishment. All trends in modem fundamental peaceful research into the structure of matter are represented in it. This research opens up limitless opportunities for the exchange of methods and knowledge between scientific branches. This facilitates the development of each of them.

During these 30 years scientists at Dubna have made 29 (officially registered) discoveries, including those of new elementary particles and microworld phenomena and me synthesis of new chemical elements. Now that its powerful IBR-2 reactor is operational the Institute will for several years remain the world's largest centre of neutron physics research.

The results of the Dubna physicists' research work do not belong to the sphere of theorizing. They are made good use of in such fields as biology, medicine, geology, ecology and the science of metals. They also find practical application in the national economy. Experts from the member-countries are provided with adequate facilities and modern equipment for conducting theoretical and experimental research. About 600 foreign specialists are working here at present, together with their Russian colleagues. The Institute maintains broad international contacts. It cooperates with 200 institutes and universities in member-countries, as well as 30 scientific centres in Europe and elsewhere.

OUR FRIEND - THE ATOM

man’s civilian activity – гражданская деятельность человека

requirement – требование

impressive – впечатляющий

to diversify – отклонять, различать, отличать

to supervise – наблюдать за чем-либо, заведовать, руководить

to detect – выявлять, обнаруживать

sheet metal – листовой металл

surface – поверхность

to owe – быть обязанным, быть в долгу перед кем-то

hazard – шанс, риск, опасность, рисковать, осмелиться

propulsion – продвижение, толчок

The atom has been taught a host of peaceful trades. The power derived from atomic reactions has been applied to all fields of man's civilian activity. The application of atomic power to the generation of electricity is becoming increasingly broader. This is the only known potential capable of meeting mankind's growing requirements in electric power, natural fuels like coal, gas and oil being drained with appalling rapidity.

The first atomic power plant was put into operation in Obninsk near Moscow in 1954. Several dozens of similar power plants are now operating in the world, atomic power generation making impressive progress.

Chemistry is making more and more claims on the diversified potentialities of atomic power. The chemical industry is making much use of isotope instruments to supervise a number of chemical processes which formerly had been difficult to check properly.

Metallurgists use atomic instruments to supervise the operation and the state of some processes in blast-furnaces. Isotope instruments measure the thickness of hot rolled sheet metal, detect faults in metal and do many other jobs. The atom has greatly increased the efficiency of geologists, it has accelerated the testing of minerals and the study of the earth's surface structure. At present geologists use nuclear instruments as routine equipment in prospecting.

It is to a nuclear instrument that we owe our knowledge of the composition of the moon's surface. Nuclear-physical instruments guard space pilots against the hazards of cosmic rays. Flights to distant planets are hardly possible without using atomic power as a means of: propulsion and a power source for the space vehicle. Direct transformation of atomic power into electricity is a very promising field for outer space energetics.

ATOMIC POWER

In 1942 Fermi (1901-1954), a scientist, built a new kind of heat-engine at Chicago Univercity.

Fermi's heat-engine is now galled a nuclear reactor, but he called it a pile. Long before, at the beginning of the age of electricity, Volta had made a sort of electric battery and had called it a pile. So Fermi borrowed this word to give a name to his strange apparatus, which was the first of its kind (1) in the history of the world.

He used uranium in his reactor, and natural uranium contains about 1 per cent of U₂₃₅. The nucleus of U₂₃₅ splits easily enough; and indeed that is probably the reason why this kind of atom is rare. Probably it was not rare millions of years ago, but as it splits so easily, most of these atoms have already split and few remain. The nucleus of U₂₈₈ is much more stable, and it is comparatively difficult to split it. That is the reason why so many atoms of this kind still remain.

Fermi wanted to generate heat by the fission (breaking) of uranium atoms, and he wanted a chain reaction to start. Then the fission of one nucleus would emit neutrons, which would hit and break other nuclei, which would set free more neutrons, and so on. But Fermi had many problems before him.(3)

Neutrons which are shot out of a nucleus by fission travel very fast about 5,000 to 10,000 miles per second. Neutrons moving as fast as this dc not usually produce any further fission. They are going so fast that they just shoot through (4) another nucleus if they hit it. To make them useful, their speed must be reduced.

If there are any impurities in the uranium, these will eat up (5) neutrons without helping the reaction at all. The neutrons are absorbed by the material which is not uranium. Therefore uranium in a reactor must be as pure as possible.

A third matter for consideration is the space between the nuclei of any substance.

When the nuclei are supposed to be the size of (6) tennis-balls, the distance from one to the next is 3 or 4 miles. If we try to hit one of these with a bullel (neutron) without aiming, there is little chance of success if there are only a few tennis-balls. But suppose that there are millions of tennis-balls reaching as far as the eye can see up into the sky (all of them 3 miles apait). Then if we fire a fast bullet that can travel for ever, it will hit a tennis-ball in the end. It will go on, through the empty spaces for a time, but at last it will hit one. And the more tennis-balls there are, the greater is the chance (7) that the bullet will hit one.

The same argument applies to a piece of uranium. If it is small, there is little chance that a neutron will hit a nucleus before it flies out of the uranium into the air outside. As the piece of uranium is made bigger, the chances that a neutron will hit a nucleus increase. If the piece is very big, it becomes almost certain that the neutron will hit a nucleus before escaping; and if the material is suitable (U₁₃₅) and the speed of the neutron is suitable, we have a reactor which will continue to work properly if it is under control. If it is not under control, the uranium will explode in a fraction of a second: (8) but it will not do this unless the piece is big enough.

Fermi built his pile slowly, and watched with instruments how many neutrons were flying about inside it. The number increased as the size of the reactor increased, Fermi was careful, he did not want the whole thing to explode.

If U₂₃₅ is separated out from natural uranium (a very difficult process indeed) and gathered together, nothing will happen at first, if some method is used to slow down the neutrons, they will break the nuclei, but they will not break a sufficient number of them. But as the piece of U135 gets bigger and bigger, the neutrons have less chance to escape before they hit a nucleus. A time will come, as the piece is added lo, when the number of being produced is greater than the number being used up: the is increasing. It increases in a fraction of a second at this critical size, and the uranium explodes. But as long as it remains below this size, it is safe.

Fermi knew that the neutrons must be slowed down, because they are useless when they travel very fast. He made them travel more slowly fry letting them pass through graphite. Graphite is quite a common substance, the central part of a pencil is made from it. The uranium for the reactor was placed in graphite bricks, and when the neutrons came out through the graphite, they were moving fairly slowly.

The nucleus of U₂₃₈ is split when it is struck by these slow neutrons, and this was what Fermi wanted. Any substance which is used for slowing down the neutrons in a reactor is called a moderator. Graphite is a good moderator, and so is heavy water. Graphite is common, but heavy water is hard to get and more expensive.

Fermi wanted to control his reactor. If the neutrons got out of control,(9) the heat would be so great that the whole thing would be destroyed, and the radiation effects would be very dangerous. How could he control the number of neutrons which were set free?

Fermi used cadmium rods. Cadmium absorbs neutrons easily, and lie arranged the rods in such a way that they could be lowered into the reactor when he liked. As soon as it began to get too hot, he lowered the rods. Then they absorbed millions of free neutrons flying about inside, so that fewer remained to his other nuclei. The chain reaction was controlled and so the heat produced was limited to the proper amount.

Scientists have turned their attention to (10) the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. The nuclear reactor at Сalder Hall in England was used as a part of a power station.

The chain reaction at Calder .Hall produces heat. Pipes containing gas surround the core of the reactor, and the heated gas is led away to the heat-exchanger.

In the heat-exchanger, the hot gas heats water which passes near it in miles of pipes. The water in these pipes is turned into steam which drives turbines in the usual way. The turbines are connected to generators which produce current.

It will be noticed (II) that the reactor docs not heat the water directly, but indirectly through (carbon dioxide) gas. The water itself is not allowed to go near the reactor, because every tiling inside a reactor becomes radioactive; and radioactive steam in the turbines is far too dangerous. But the gas does not go into the turbines: it returns to the reactor after its heat has been transferred to the water.

Radiation from a nuclear reactor is highly dangerous, and every care must be taken (12) to prevent large doses of it from affecting scientists and other workers. All of us always receive some radiation from outer space on our bodies; but the amount is limited, and the effects seem to be negligible. But more intense radiation may be fatal.

The dangers are caused by alpha-particles, beta-particles, gamma-rays, and free neutrons. They are all dangerous because they remove electrons from the atoms in the body. Thus they upset the linkage of the molecules, and so the molecules break up. This interrupts the ordinary working of the cells of the body.

All apparatus which produces nuclear radiation should be shielded in concrete, lead or steel. No one should eat or smoke near such areas of radiation. Detecting instruments should be carried in the pockets, so that the presence of violent nuclear radiation may at once be known. No waste material from the reactor must be left lying where people may approach it; it should be buried in the earth or dropped into the deep seas, preferably surrounded by concrete. It should not be put into the sea in any container which may float or may be moved by the waves and the tides.

The workers are regularly examined to find out if they have been; affected by the radiation. They wear protective clothing. Much of the work of running the reactor is done by remote control: that is to say, the apparatus is controlled from a distance (by switches and knobs), and so the personnel do not go near it. Such necessary movements as the raising and lowering of cadmium rods is done by machinery controlled from far away.

A Geiger counter is an instrument for counting the radiations in any place, it is not a complicated instrument. It consists of fl tube containing gas, and through the tube runs a wire. This wire is insulated from the metal tube, so that normally ho current can pays from one to the other. Either the wire or the tube is given a positive voltage.

Normally nothing happens. But if electrified particles (alpha-particles or electrons) enter the counter, they knock off electrons (13) from some of the atoms in the tube and these allow a current to be carried between the wire and the tube. This current, which flows for a very short time, can be made to move a pointer or make a sound, so that the presence of radioactivity is known. The greater the degree of radiation, the more often does the current flow; a Geiger counter in intense radiation clicks away very fast (14) indeed.

The main use of nuclear power at present is to generate electricity in power stations. It already drives ships, submarines, and it is very suitable for this purpose because it does not burn the oxygen in the air. Submarines make voyages under the ice and icebreakers over the ice.

It is unlikely that a reactor will be used for driving motorcars. A reactor is necessarily big itself, and the essential shielding adds to its size and weight. For small vehicles it is therefore unsuitable. Nevertheless, smaller kinds of reactors might be used for such purposes in the future, and it may be that a new way of using this source of energy will be found, which does not need the heating of water at all.

ПРИМЕЧАНИЯ:

(1) the first of its kind - первый в своем роде (3) had many problems before him - столкнулся с множеством проблем (4) shoot through - простреливаются

(5) will eat up - поглотят (6) When the nuclei arc supposed to be the size of ... = если предположить, что ядра имеют размер...

(7) the more tennis-balls there are, the greater is the chance - чем больше будет теннисных мячей, тем больше будет шансов на то

(8) in a fraction of a second - в долю секунды

(9) to get out of control - выходить из-под контроля

(10) turned their attention to-обратили свое внимание на

(11) It will be noticed - следует отметить

(12) every care must be taken - следует принять все меры

(13) knock off electrons - выбивают электроны

1. Translate into Russian:

1) age of electricity;

2) easily enough;

3) (to) shoot out;

4) tennis-balls;

5) chance of success;

6) nit a nucleus;

7) under control;

8) slow down;

9) common substance;

10) fairly slowly;

11) far too dangerous;

12) intense radiation

2. Translate into Russian the following verbs:

to borrow, to split,

to generate, to omit,

to hit, to compel,

to eat up, to swallow,

to fire, to fly out,

to explode, to gather,

to escape, to slow down,

to strike, to destroy,

to absorb, to prevent,

to bury, to drop,

to surround, to examine,

to raise, to lower,

to count, to float,

to click, to knock

UNITE 5

MODERN FIELDS OF SCEINCES

AUTOMATION

automation – автоматизация

previously – ранее

sequence – последовательность

assembly plant – сборочный завод

nonmanufacturing – непроизводственный

device – устройство, прибор

resemble – походить

efficiency – эффективность

flyball governor – центробежный регулятор

steam engine – паровоз

household thermostat – бытовой термостат

facilitate – способный

punched – перфорированный

aid – помощь

dimension – измерения, размеры

Automation is the system of manufacture performing certain tasks, previously done by people, by machines only. The sequences of operations are controlled automatically. The most familiar example of a highly automated system is an assembly plant for automobiles or other complex products. The term «automation» is also used to describe nonma-nufacturing systems in which automatic devices can operate independently of human control. Such devices as automatic pilots, automatic telephone equipment and automated control systems are used to perform various operations much faster and better than could be done by people.

Automated manufacturing had several steps in its development. Mechanization was the first step necessary in the development of automation. The simplification of work made it possible to design and build machines that resembled the motions of the worker. These specialized machines were motorized and they had better production efficiency.

Industrial robots, originally designed only to perform simple tasks in environments dangerous to human workers, are now widely used to transfer, manipulate, and position both light and heavy workpieces performing all the functions of a transfer machine.

In the 1920s die automobile industry for the first time used an integrated system of production. This method of production was adopted by most car manufacturers and became known as Detroit automation.

The feedback principle is used in all automatic-control mechanisms when machines have ability to correct themselves. The feedback principle has been used for centuries. An outstanding early example is the flyball governor, invented in 1788 by James Watt to control the speed of the steam engine. The common household thermostat is another example of a feedback device.

Using feedback devices, machines can start, stop, speed up, slow down, count, inspect, test, compare, and measure. These operations are commonly applied to a wide variety of production operations.

Computers have greatly facilitated the use of feedback in manufacturing processes. Computers gave rise to the development of numerically controlled machines. The motions of these machines are controlled by punched paper or magnetic tapes. In numerically controlled machining centres machine tools can perform several different machining operations.

More recently, the introduction of microprocessors and computers have made possible the development of computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture (CAD and CAM) technologies. When using these systems a designer draws a part and indicates its dimensions with the help of a mouse, light pen, or other input device. After the drawing has been completed the computer automatically gives the instructions that direct a machining centre to machine the part.

Another development using automation are the flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). A computer in FMS can be used to monitor and control the operation of the whole factory.

Automation has also had an influence on the areas of the economy other than manufacturing. Small computers are used in systems called word processors, which are rapidly becoming a standard part of the modern office. They are used to edit texts, to type letters and so on.

AUTOMATION IN INDUSTRY

Many industries are highly automated or use automation technology in some part of their operation. In communications and especially in the telephone industry dialling and transmission are all done automatically. Railways are also controlled by automatic signalling devices, which have sensors that detect carriages passing a particular point. In this way the movement and location of trains can be monitored. Not all industries require the same degree of automation. Sales, agriculture, and some service industries are difficult to automate, though agriculture industry may become more mechanized, especially in the processing and packaging of foods.

The automation technology in manufacturing and assembly is widely used in car and other consumer product industries.

Nevertheless, each industry has its own concept of automation that answers its particular production needs.

A) General understanding:

1. How is the term automation defined in the text? 2. What is the most «familiar example» of automation given in the text?

3. What was the first step in the development of automaton?

4. What were the first robots originally designed for?

5. What was the first industry to adopt the new integrated system of production?

6. What is feedback principle? 7. What do the abbreviations CAM and CAD stand for?

8. What is FMS?

9. What industries use automation technologies?

B) Find the following words and word combinations in the text:

1. Автоматические устройства.

2. Автоматизированное производство

3. Выполнять простые задачи.

4. Как легкие, так и тяжёлые детали 5. Интегрированная система производства

6. Принцип обратной связи

7. Механизм может разгоняться и тормозить

8. Компьютер автоматически посылает команды

9. Высокоавтоматизированная система

10. Непроизводственная система

TYPES OF AUTOMATION

equipment – оборудование

sequence – последовательность

initial – первоначальный, начальный

investment – инвестиция, вклад

to facilitate – способствовать

rate – скорость, темп

assembly machines – сборочные машины

quantity – количество

non-productive – непроизводственный

changeover – переход, переналадка

Applications of Automation and Robotics in Industry

Manufacturing is one of the most important application area for automation technology. There are several types of automation in manufacturing. The examples of automated systems used in manufacturing are described below.

1. Fixed automation, sometimes called «bard automation» refers to automated machines in which the equipment configuration allows fixed sequence of processing operations. These machines are programmed by their design to make only certain processing operations. They are not easily changed over from one product style to another. This form of automation needs high initial investments and high production rates. That is why it is suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples of fixed automation are machining transfer lines found in the automobile industry, automatic assembly machines and certain chemical

processes.

2. Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in large quantities, ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a time. For each new product the production equipment must be reprogrammed and changed over. This reprogramming and changeover take a period of non-productive time. Production rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed automation, because the equipment is designed to facilitate product changeover rather than for product specialization. A numerical-control machine-tool is a good example of programmable automation. The program is coded in computer memory for each different product style and the machine-tool is controlled by the computer programme.

3. Flexible automation is a kind of programmable automation. Programmable automation requires time to

ге-progfam and change over the production equipment for each series of new product. This is lost production time, which is expensive. In flexible automation the number of products is limited so that the changeover of the equipment can be done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment in flexible automation is done at a computer terminal without using the production equipment itself. Flexible automation allows a mixture of different products to be produced one right after another.

A) General understanding;

1. What is the most important application of automation?

2. What are the types of automation used in manufacturing?

3. What is fixed automation?

4. What are the limitations of hard automation?

5. What is the best example of programmable automation?

6. What are the limitations of programmable automation?

7. What are the advantages of flexible automation?

8. Is it possible to produce different products one after another using automation technology?

B) Find equivalents in English in the text:

1. Сфера применения

2 Фиксированная последовательность операций

3. Автоматические сборочные машины

4. Определенные химические процессы

5. Станок с числовым программным управлением

6. Потерянное производственное время

7. Разнообразная продукция

C) Explain in English what does the following mean:

1. automation technology

2. fixed automation

3. assembly machines

4. non-productive time

5. programmable automation

6. computer terminal

7. numerical-control machine-tool

ROBOTS IN MANUFACTURING

handling – обращение

transfer – передача, перенос

location – местонахождение

pick up – брать, подбирать

arrangement – расположение

to utilize – утилизировать, находить применение

gripper – захват

to grasp – схватывать

spot welding – точечная сварка

continuous – непрерывный

arc welding – электродуговая сварка

spray painting – окраска распылением

frame – рама

spray-painting gun – распылитель краски

gpinding – шлифование

polishing – полирование

spindle – шпиндель

manual – ручной

labour – труд

hazardous – опасный

shift – смена

Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations. The applications of robots can be divided into three categories:

1. material handling

2. processing operations

3. assembly and inspection.

Material-handling is the transfer of material and loading and unloading of machines. Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials or work parts from one to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple: robots pick up parts from one conveyor and place them on another. Other transfer operations are more complex, such as placing parts in an arrangement that can be calculated by the robot. Machine loading and unloading operations utilize a robot to load and unload parts. This requires the robot to be equipped with a grip-per that can grasp parts. Usually the gripper roust be designed specifically for the particular part geometry.

In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a process on the work part. Examples of such applications include spot welding, continuous arc welding and spray painting. Spot welding of automobile bodies is one of the most common applications of industrial robots. The robot positions a spot welder against the automobile panels and frames to join them. Arc welding is a continuous process in which robot moves the welding rod along the welding seam. Spray painting is the manipulation of a spray-painting gun over the surface of the object to be coated. Other operations in this category include grinding and polishing in which a rotating spindle serves as the robot's tool.

The third application area of industrial robots is assembly and inspection. The use of robots in assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost of manual labour. But the design of the product is an important aspect of robotic assembly. Assembly methods that are satisfactory for humans are not always suitable for robots. Screws and nuts are widely used for fastening in manual assembly, but the same operations are extremely difficult for a one-armed robot.

Inspection is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is growing. In atypical inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect to the work part and determines whether the part answers the quality specifications. In nearly all industrial robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for human labour. There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by humans that can be done by robots:

1. the operation is repetitive, involving the same basic work motions every cycle,

2. the operation is hazardous or uncomfortable for the human worker (for example: spray painting, spot welding, arc welding, and certain machine loading and unloading tasks),

3. the workpiece or tool are too heavy and difficult to handle,

4. the operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts.

A) General understanding:

1. How are robots used in manufacturing?

2. What is «material handling»?

3. What does a robot need to be equipped with to do loading and unloading operations?

4. What does robot manipulate in robotic processing operation?

5. What is the most common application of robots in automobile manufacturing?

6. What operations could be done by robot in car manufacturing industry?

7. What are the main reasons to use robots in production?

8. How can robots inspect the quality of production?

9. What operations could be done by robots in hazardous or uncomfortable for the human workers conditions?

B) Translate into English:

1. Существует несколько различных сфер использования автоматизации в производстве.

2. Для использования жёсткой автоматизации необходимы большие инве­стиции.

3. Жёсткая автоматизация широко используется в химической промыш­ленности.

4. Станки с числовым программным управлением — хороший пример программируемой автоматизации.

5. Гибкая автоматизация делает возможным перепрограммирование обо­рудования.

6. Время простоя оборудования оборачивается большими убытками.

7. Использование гибкой автоматизации делает возможным производство разнообразной продукции.

MICROELECTRONICS

inevitable – неизбежный

to encompass – охватывать

slurries of abrasive grift – суспензии из абразивной крошки

Microelectronics is the technology of constructing electronic circuits and devices in extremely small packages by various techniques. This technology is also referred to as microminiaturization.

The increasing complexity of electronic systems over the past 30 years has made the evolution of microelectronics inevitable. During this period, the electron tubes in the early electronic systems have been replaced by solid-state discrete devices and integrated circuitry; and these, in turn, are giving way to medium- and large-scale integrated circuitry. Microelectronics today encompasses thin-film, thick-film, hybrid, and integrated circuit technology. These approaches (and combinations of them) are being applied in every branch of electronics.

Integrated circuits that combine all the elements of a complete electronic circuit on a single chip of silicon can be produced. The implications of this in the microelectronic evolution are easily demonstrated. Let us compare a conventional J/K flip-flop circuit incorporating solid-state discrete devices and the same type of circuit employing integrated circuitry.

The conventional circuit would require approximately 40 separate discrete elements, 200 connections, 40 hermetic seals, and 300 separate processing operations, with each operation, seal, and connection representing a possible source of failure. However, if all the elements of this circuit are integrated upon one chip of silicon, the number of connections drops to about 14. All circuit elements are interconnected inside the package by a process known as vapour metallization; instead of 40 hermetic seals there is one, and the three hundred processing operations are reduced to approximately 30.

Before the actual fabrication of the integrated circuit begins, the silicon crystal must be sliced into paper-thin wafers. The wafers must be lapped and polished on one side that is to be used for the active elements. Unless special processing is involved, the back side of the wafer is left in the lapped state.

Both sides of the wafer are lapped simultaneously with an abrasive (usually aluminium oxide) until all visible traces of the saw cuts are removed. One side of the wafer is then polished several times with slurries of abrasive grit. A grit of smaller size is used for each succeeding polishing step. Finally, the wafer is chemically etched to remove any irregularities in the surface resulting from the last polishing step.

The diffusion process begins when the highly polished silicon is placed in an oven, containing impurity atoms which yield the desired electrical characteristics,. When the wafer has been uniformly doped, the fabrication of semiconductor devices may begin. Several hundred circuits are produced simultaneously on the wafer.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

application – применение

developed – разработанный

special – специальный

general-purpose – общего назначения

problem-solving situation – ситуация решения задач

high-level – высокого уровня

machine-level – машинного уровня

execute – выполнять, применять

require – требовать

knowledgeable – знающий, компетентный

Hundreds of programming languages have been developed for computer systems. Some languages can be used only for specific applications or with a special computer system. Other languages are general-purpose; they are used for many problem-solving situations and are easy to learn and use.

All the programming languages are divided into high-level languages and machine-level languages.

High-level languages, like BASIC and FORTRAN, are machine-independent languages because language statements are such that any program written in the language can usually be executed on different computer systems.

Machine-level languages, on the other hand, such as the assembly language, require that you should know about the computer and the peripheral devices and how they work together.

That is why, machine-level languages are machine-dependent languages. Machine-level language programs can be efficient because the knowledgeable programmer will choose the fastest and most exact instructions to execute them.

Beginning programmers and students usually use high-level languages because they are less difficult to learn and to use, and they produce fast results. System programmers, on the other hand, may use machine-level languages for writing programs that must often be as fast and efficient as possible. If you already know a language supported by the computer system, you may continue to use that language rather than spend time to learn a new one.

COMPUTERS AND CYBERNETICS

The computers or high-.speed electronic machines of today have created entirely new technical possibilities in automatic control of industrial processes. First designed for solving. mathematical problems. They soon paved the way for it new field of science—cybernetics that studies general principles of control both in live and non-live systems.

The importance of cybernetics is particularly great in the sphere of" engineering sciences. A newly developed field of knowledge is technical cybernetics. Its objectives are to control automatic: industrial processes, to study problems of transmission of information and to develop new principles of automatic control.

The development of a control computer begins with the study of the objects or units to be controlled. This is followed by the development of working hypotheses about the character of processes taking place in the units, and finally, elaboration of control algorithms.

The quantitative relationships of the process being controlled arc described by mathematical equations linking together certain functions, some of which are known and others are to be found.

The computing device is inserted into the automatic control circuit and made to find optimum solutions to the above-mentioned equations. and control the process, securing the most efficient operation on the basis of computed results.

The unit being controlled has transducers which determine the initial conditions and values in the equations being solved.

Using the optimum solutions the computing unit of the machine produces the data necessary to form (he control signals. The control elements are actuated by operational units specially designed for the purpose. I he modified process variables are again fed So the computing device and the cycle of control is repented.

One of the main problems of technical cybernetics is the development of control algorithms to be used in processing and control of information flows. The algorithms worked out for employment in control machines arc called programs. These are based on subdivision of the computation process into simple arithmetical operations and on determitiation of the logical operations to be performed with a view to fulfil ths program which gives the sequence of the machine's operations, and must be coded or expressed in the adopted code system.

Two systems of computers are now created for control computer design. One of these is the development of general-purpose control machines which may have much wider application but require more complicated logical circuitry and a greater number of instructions and commands employed in the computer. This approach permits control of a p/eat variety of" industrial units with the aid of one and the same computer.

The second system utilizes modem microcomputer techniques to develop special-purpose machines designed to control a particular process. 1 his leads to the creation of more easily operated, and low-cost control computers. Tests of some control computers manufactured for specific industrial units have shown their efficiency and quite sufficient reliability.

In the Soviet Union, both systems о Г control are applied. Extensive woгk is carried out in research and design to create special-purpose control computers. Centralized systems of automatic control for industrial plants by means of general-purpose computers are being created.

Electronic digital computers perform both arithmetical and logical operations, making it possible to govern processes under rather complicated conditions.

Mathematical devices of continuous action are employed in control machines to direct various technological processes.

Application of control computers in industry calls for a great advance in all related branches of science and engineering. Modern measuring instruments must ensure the desired speed and accuracy of measurement of all process variables and initial data necessary for solving problem.

A considerable increase in the number of variables to be measured and exacting requirements of speed and accuracy of their measurement call for entirely new physical methods and metrological instruments. Control computers signify a tremendous advance in the development of automatic control systems for industrial processes.

A) Translate into Russian the following verbs:

to create, to reflect,

to insert, to control,

to secure, to design,

to realize, to amplify,

to feed, to produce,

to follow, to utilize,

to handle, to direct,

to pave the way, to impose,

to call for, to signify

to solve, to define,

to refer to, to ensure,

to develop, to process,

to actuate, to modify,

to assign, to embrace,

to yield, to translate,

to adopt, to work out,

to employ, to fulfil,

to describe, to investigate,

to imply, to accomplish,

to elaborate,

B) Translate into Russian the following phrases:

high-speed machines, automatic control,

live systems, outcome of events,

phenomenon under study, broader sense,

engineering sciences, realm of knowledge,

closed-loop communication, complicated task,

profound research, elaborate designing,

working hypotheses, control algorithms,

reproduction of information, subsequent processing,

quantitative relationship, linking together,

control loop, efficient operation,

appropriate transducers, initial conditions,

derived solution, control elements,

abrupt changes, qualitative changes,

correct choice, optimum process,

internal potentialities, related commands,

unified system, final control elements,

school of thought, general-purpose,

special-purpose

C) Answer the following questions:

1. What are computers used for?

2. What is information and why do we need it?

3. What are the main parts of a computer?

4. What is an algorithm

5. What types of computers arc used today?

6.What is a program?

7. What is a command and how does a computer obey the command?

______________________________________________________

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

The first personal computer was created by a company called «MJTS» in 1975. It was based on the «Intel» 8-bit microprocessor. All first-generation machines were based on 8-bit microprocessors.

A microprocessor, is a computer compressed into a single chip. The «8-bit» designation indicates how much information can be handled by the processor at one time and how much memory it can deal with.

The second generation of personal computers is based on newer, 16-bit microprocessors. The «IBM» personal computer was the first popular 16-bit machine. More than twenty different 16-bit computers are now being sold. These machines work faster, have more memory, and cost more than 8-bit machines.

A generation of 32-bit machines are now available.

The transistor was the basis for the second generation of computers — a generation that lasted about 15 years. The third generation began in the mid-1960s and produced two types of offspring: the mainframe computer and the minicomputer. The mainframe computer looked like a computer. It was (and still is) big, required air conditioning or even direct liquid cooling to keep its not electrical components working (as a direct consequence of its still-substantial power consumption), and had (and still has) to be attended by a group of specialists: systems programmers, applications programmers, and operators. All the advantages of integrated circuits were used in these systems to make them extremely powerful.

The new entrants upon the scene were the minicomputers. Much smaller and less expensive than mainframes, the minis first found application in the field of industrial process control and small-job data, processing, but their capabilities continued to expand. They began to appear in places other than the Computer Center.

The fourth and present generation of computer was ushered in by the first commercial production of a microprocessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971. This was the first occasion in which the entire central processing unit (CPU), the «brains» of a computer, was put on a single chip. With a CPU chip and a few memory chips and other integrated circuits, a fully functional, general-purpose, stored-pro-gram computer can be built that weighs a few ounces and consumes a few watts of power.

During twenty years the computer has come a long way. At the upper and of the scale are super-computers, such as the Soviet computer Elbrus-3 being developed by the group of young scientists, performing more than 20 million instructions per second. And there are more to come.

LASER - TECHNOLOGY FOR THE FUTURE

Lasers are devices which produce pure, intense beams of light or radiation. When they were first invented in 1960, nobody quite knew what to do with them. Though they seem likely to be useful, they were for a while called «a solution waiting for a problem».

The beam of a laser can be focused very precisely, which means that it can be used in tasks as simple as cutting cloth and piercing leather and as delicate and sensitive as destroying a single cell of living tissue. This means that it has great potential in the treatment of cancer.

The strength of the laser is such that it can pierce very hard substances such as diamonds and metals. It is now used in precision welding. A CO₂ gas laser can cut through brick or granite at a temperature of 1500° С

Given such strength, it is hardly surprising people see the laser as a death ray, and its military potential is being exploited, particularly in guiding missiles and in range-finding for gunners. Its accuracy as a means of measurement has helped scientists to calculate the speed of light more precisely than ever before (186282397 mps) and, with the help of laser reflectors placed on the moon by American astronauts, to determine its exact distance from earth. Lasers are also now used to measure the size of pollutant particles in the air. Surgeons performing operations have found the laser as a surgical knife, able to make bloodless incisions, and it is proving invaluable in delicate eye surgery, particularly on the retina. Skin blemishes can also be removed by means of a laser.

There are suggestions that laser beams may ultimately replace cables in telecommunications.

One of the most interesting uses is in the world of newspapers. The Los Angeles Times is «written» by a helium/neon laser and «proof-read» by an argon laser. Finally, a whole new area of optics is being opened by lasers.

PROGRAMMING

The selection of the best plan or budget for a given enterprise, one which recognizes alternating combinations of the basic planning factors, will be called «programming». Programming is a most scientific approach to planning. It is a formal, objective attempt to define, measure, and analyse all the relevant factors m the business situation, and to develop thereby the specific policies and plans which will best lead the enterprise to attainment of its objectives.

Programming includes simultaneous consideration of factors from the various administrative functions, such as planning, organizing, staffing and direction, and, to some extent, controlling, as well as from the operating functions of selling, purchasing, producing, etc.

Present need for the programming concept arises from the fact that enterprises have found that they can no longer successfully centralize all important decisions in one or a few top executives. Programming uses decision models to allocate limited resources among a number of competing demands so that the plan will result in the optimum use of resources.

In recent years mathematicians have worked out a number of new procedures which make it possible for management to solve a wide variety of important problems much faster, more easily, and more accurately than ever before.

MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS

Molecular electronics is anew concept of electronic systems. Basically it seeks, to integrate into a solid block of the material the functions performed by electronic circuits or even whole systems. Its goal is to rearrange the internal physical properties of the solid in such a way that phenomena occurring within or between domains of molecules will perform a function ordinarily achieved through the use of an assembly of electronic components.

Molecular electronics is the most forward-looking of several modem approaches to the development of small, reliable, efficient electronic systems. Almost all attempt to perform the required electronic functions in solid semiconductor-type materials. Molecular electronics, however, is unique in its goal of doing away with the traditional concept of circuit components. Should this goal be fully realized, or even partially so, it would extend the capabilities of electronic systems well beyond that which can be achieved today.

In addition to lowering size and weight, increasing reliability and reducing power requirements, molecular blocks could make possible the execution of tasks now too complex to be performed economically by conventional methods and permit the performance of electronic functions which cannot be achieved at all with lumped components.

Список использованных источников

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