Interiors

Equally, Gaudí stood out as interior decorator, decorating most of his buildings personally, from the furnishings to the smallest details. In each case he knew how to apply stylistic particularities, personalising the decoration according to the owner’s taste, the predominant style of the arrangement or its place in the surroundings—whether urban or natural, secular or religious. Many of his works were related to liturgical furnishing. From the design of a desk for his office at the beginning of his career to the furnishings designed for the Sobrellano Palace of Comillas, he designed all furnishing of the Vicens, Calvet, Batlló and Milà houses, of the Güell Palace and the Bellesguard Tower, and the liturgical furnishing of the Sagrada Família. It is noteworthy that Gaudí studied some ergonomy in order to adapt his furnishings to human anatomy. Many of his furnishings are exhibited at Gaudí Museum. Another aspect is the intelligent distribution of space, always with the aim of creating a comfortable, intimate, interior atmosphere. For this purpose, Gaudí would divide the space into sections, adapted to their specific use, by means of low walls, dropped ceilings, sliding doors and wall closets. Apart from taking care of every detail of all structural and ornamental elements, he made sure his constructions had good lighting and ventilation. For this purpose, he studied each project's orientation with respect to the cardinal points, as well as the local climate and its place in its surroundings. At that time, there was an increasing demand for more domestic comfort, with piped water and gas and the use of electric light, all of which Gaudí expertly incorporated. For the Sagrada Família, for example, he carried out thorough studies on acoustics and illumination, in order to optimise them. With regard to light, he stated:

Light achieves maximum harmony at an inclination of 45°, since it resides on objects in a way that is neither horizontal nor vertical. This can be considered medium light, and it offers the most perfect vision of objects and their most exquisite nuances. It is the Mediterranean light.

Lighting also served Gaudí for the organisation of space, which required a careful study of the gradient of light intensity to adequately adapt to each specific environment. He achieved this with different elements such as skylights, windows, shutters and blinds; a notable case is the gradation of colour used in the atrium of the Casa Batlló to achieve uniform distribution of light throughout the interior. He also tended to build south-facing houses to maximise sunlight.

The "Sagrada Família"

The "Templo Expiatorio de la Sagrada Familia" (Expiatory Temple of the Holy Family) was the idea of a bookseller, Josep María Bocabella, literate and devoted man who in 1866 founded the Asociación Espiritual de Devotos de San José (Spiritual Association of Devotees of St. Joseph), whose objective was to achieve, through the protection of St. Joseph, the triumph of the Catholic Church in a time in which the phenomenon of dechristianization was impulsed by the Industrial Revolution and the accompanying social changes.

In 1872, Bocabella went to Rome to make an offering to the Holy Father, and while returning from this trip he passed through Loreto, where he observed its beautiful church. It was there that he had the idea of making an expiatory temple in Barcelona, dedicated to the Holy Family, as a replica of the church he saw in that Italian municipality.

Beginning in 1876 Bocabella searched for a centrally located plot to build his temple, and he almost obtained it, since the Duchess of Almenara Alta was going to donate one which she owned, but she died before she made the donation. So then the Association had to find a plot further from the centre because its budget was scant. The plot which was acquired for 172.000,- pesetas occupied 12,800 square meters in the block delimited by Marina, Provenza, Mallorca and Cerdeña streets.

In 1877 the architect Francisco de Paula del Villar offered to draw the plans for free. Del Villar's project was totally neogothic: a church with three naves, with the crypt oriented according to the orthogonal axes of the block.

The first stone was placed on March 19, 1882, on the festival of St. Joseph. Gaudí officially took over construction on March 18, 1883 (although he had intervened one year before) because of some disagreements between Del Villar and the council, represented by Juan Martorell Montells.

Del Villar wanted to use ashlar columns, which was much more expensive than completing the interior with rubblework and then cover them with ashlar, and he argued with Martorell because the latter reproached him for spending much unnecessary money on the project. Then the architecture professor sent a letter to Bocabella telling him that if his instructions were not followed then he would resign his post. Bocabella had no other option than to accept his resignation because the project budget came from donations and he could not waste it. Later Del Villar claimed some fees which were never agreed to since, as we have stated, he had offered himself as a volunteer to create the plans for the temple with no compensation.

The council decided to pass management of the construction to Martorell, who, considering what had taken place, proposed the young Gaudí as successor to Del Villar's former post. Gaudí had collaborated with Martorell on some projects. The council approved and the young architect (only 31 years old!) took over management of the construction right away. In those moments the columns were being made and only a couple of them had reached the height of the capitals. He modified Del Villar's project making more naturalist capitals, and he opened a trench around the crypt to allow light and direct ventilation.

Gaudí officially signed his first plans as construction manager in December, 1884; they were the plans of the elevation and altar section of the Capilla de San José (Chapel of St. Joseph). Its construction was swift and on March 19, 1885, it was inaugurated, offering the first mass on the following day.

Once the crypt was finished Gaudí planned the apse, in which he was forced to base his plan on the gothic style which Villar had used in the first project. Gaudí always said that gothic architecture did not provide a definitive solution to the problem of the thrusts on the arches and vaults; it only made it appear that the walls held the weight, because in reality it fell upon the flying buttresses, which were like the crutches of a cripple. In addition, these flying buttresses were outside the building, that is, at the mercy of the elements, which quickened their deterioration. The Sagrada Familia would not have been such a great monument of new architecture if flying buttresses had been used. Gaudí concentrates the weight on the supporting elements-the columns, that is-and he uses one material or another depending on the weight they have to support.

Gaudí imagined a church in the form of a Latin cross over the initial crypt; above the crypt, the major altar, surrounded by seven chapels in the apse dedicated to the seven pains and the seven sins of St. Joseph, and in each of them there would be a representation of the Holy Family. Across from the altar there would be two great doors at the ends, of the Nativity and the Passion. This transept is composed of three naves. It follows perpendicularly the central body of the temple, composed of five naves and closed by the colossal monument that will be the Façade of the Glory or the main entrance to the temple, by Mallorca street.

The entire creation is surrounded by cloisters that are used for processions, and isolate the temple from the noise of the city. Next to the presbytery is the sacristy, and centered between them, exactly in the axis of the major altar, the Chapel of the Assumption. Inside the temple would include ample galleries for singers with capacity for several thousand voices.

Above each façade there will be four towers, 12 in total, which will be dedicated to the Apostles. The tower in the center, the tallest of all at 170 m., will be dedicated to Jesus Christ. Around these will be the towers of the four Evangelists, and the tower over the apse will be dedicated to the Virgin.

The towers have a parabolic profile and include helicoidal stairways which allow the middle part to be hollow, for the placement of tubular bells placed as carillon, whose sound should combine with the voices of the choirs. There will be three types: the ordinary, tuned to the notes of mi, sol, do; the tubular, which will sound as percussion, and others, also tubular, that will sound through injected air. Gaudi spent more than four years studying the sound of these bells so that they would sound as well as possible.

The Nativity Façade is the façade of Hope, and upon it Gaudí desired to place a great quantity of sculptures as a splendorous compliment to the architecture. A careful examination of the Nativity Façade allows one to find upon it almost 100 plant species and the same amount of animal species, sculpturally represented in its archivolts. This façade includes three doors dedicated to Faith, Hope and Charity. All the names of Christ's genealogy are engraved on the column above the center door (representing Charity); the serpent with the apple may be found at the base; and the culmination of the baby Jesus is engraved on the door, along with the ox and the mule. The groups of the Adoration of the Magi and the signs of the zodiac as they were on the day of the birth of Jesus also appear on this door. The rest of the façade will include different episodes of the childhood of Jesus, and mysteries such as the Holy Trinity and the Immaculate Conception.

In order to see all the details of the models that he needed in order to make the sculptures he used a system of two mirrors joined with a hinge, which allowed him to see various planes in one figure. Thus, upon finding the position which he considered most appropriate, an empty plaster mold was made, from which one solid piece was later sculpted in stone. He also studied the human body and its movements with the help of skeletons (he had two: one natural and another metallic skeleton at one-fifth the natural size); he used their joints in order to study the most adequate positions.

The towers of the Nativity Façade begin in the shape of a square and at a certain height become circular. The first was completed in 1918, and the set of four was finished in 1926 with the coronation which represents a cypress, symbol of endurance of time. The towers are finished off with a mosaic appliquÈ which represents the pastoral ring, the staff and the miter of the bishop. Gaudí chose this type of appliquÈ because, due to the difficulty of repairing parts at such great heights, it was preferable to choose a durable material, such as the venetian.

The Passion Façade is found in the opposite side from the Nativity, and has more marked and hard lines, which represent the pain and final sacrifice of the life of Jesus. The crucified Christ presides over the central door, and around him are those who were present at his agony: the holy women, Longinos, the Good Thief, at one side, and the soldiers which mock him and the Evil Thief, on the other. Three Latin words appear on this facade: Veritas, Vida and Via, because Jesus is the Way. The studies for this façade were completed between 1892 and 1917, but its construction did not begin until 1952, being completed in 1978.

On the main façade, still under construction, the life and end of man will be explained. Halfway up human life will be represented with the attributes of all manual vocations, presided by St. Joseph in his workshop, and below, the figures of Adam and Eve, who with their fall forced man to work as punishment. Purgatory, death and Hell, as well as the attributes of the Passion, seven angels as an allegory of the Last Judgment, and above all, the Eternal Father, accompanied by angels and the days of Creation, will also be represented. On the portico there will be seven doors, each dedicated to a sacrament and a petition of the "Our Father."

Gaudí considered some monumental stairways to the door, of such size that they would cross Mallorca street over a tunnel, but this will be impossible because the grounds across the street is not property of the Temple. In the square in front of the Gloria Façade there will be two great monuments: one dedicated to water, with helix-shaped fountains, on the side of the baptistery, and the other dedicated to fire, near the door of Penitence, because these two elements are those that purify man. The other two elements will be represented naturally, as they are, earth and air.

Gaudí left no written plan but he left, clearly specified on the model which was built, his thought about the form and symbolism of the building. He was always conscious that he would not be able to finish the work due to its great magnitude. He also left some drawings in which the polychrome nature that the building will have can be observed-because he said that color is life.

The Holy Family can be considered a Bible in stone, due to the great quantity of catholic symbols which Gaudí chose to mold into his façades. In them are found (or will be) from Adam and Eve to the Twelve Apostles, passing through all the episodes of the life of Jesus as well as the symbols of the Old Testament. It is a monument which declares the catholic creed.

But the importance of Gaudí's unfinished building is not only religious; it may be considered the "Book of Gaudí" because it is the clearest explanation of his method of construction. In this work Gaudí applied all the structural solutions that he had studied and tested more than once in the works which he created throughout his life. These solutions were, for him, simple corrections of the errors that previous styles committed. Gaudí had learned much by observing nature and its shapes, and by simply trying to imitate them. The structure of the temple is formed, based on leaning columns, with abundant ramifications in the upper sections, whose branches hold up small fragments of hyperboloid vaults, which produce the effect of a forest.

Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listeners) to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or services. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media; including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio advertisement, outdoor advertising or direct mail; or new media such as websites and text messages.

Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "Branding," which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an effort to associate certain qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement (PSA).

Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Definition

1. The non-personal communication of information usually paid for & usually persuasive in nature, about products (goods & services) or ideas by identified sponsor through various media. (Arenes 1996)

2. Any paid form of non-personal communication about an organization, product,service, or idea from an identified sponsor. (Blech & Blech 1998)

3. Paid non-personal communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade influence an audience. (Wells, Burnett, & Moriaty 1998)

4. The element of the marketing communication mix that is non personal paid for an identified sponsor, & disseminated through channels of mass communication to promote the adoption of goods, services, person or ideas. (Bearden, Ingram, & Laforge 1998)

5. An informative or persuasive message carried by a non personal medium & paid for by an identified sponsor whose organization or product is identified in some way. (Zikmund & D'amico 1999)

6. Impersonal; one way communication about a product or organization that is paid by a marketer. (Lamb, Hair & Mc.Daniel 2000)

7. Any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas,goods or services by an identified sponsor. (Kotler et al, 2006)

History

Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan. Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. History tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.

As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers.

As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.

As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising.

In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad - the copy, layout, and artwork - was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century when the advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.

Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in the Los Angeles Times on May 6, 1930

At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".

In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups. When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show.

This practice was carried over to commercial television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). However, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasting companies to operate in the "public interest, convenience, and necessity". Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR).

In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show—up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.

In the 1960s, campaigns featuring heavy spending in different mass media channels became more prominent. For example, the Esso gasoline company spent hundreds of millions of dollars on an brand awareness campaign built around the simple and alliterative theme Put a Tiger in Your Tank. Psychologist Ernest Dichter and DDB Worldwide copywriter Sandy Sulcer learned that motorists desired both power and play while driving, and chose the tiger as an easy–to–remember symbol to communicate those feelings. The North American and later European campaign featured extensive television and radio and magazine ads, including photos with tiger tails supposedly emerging from car gas tanks, promotional events featuring real tigers, billboards, and in Europe station pump hoses "wrapped in tiger stripes" as well as pop music songs. Tiger imagery can still be seen on the pumps of successor firm ExxonMobil.

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.

With the advent of the ad server, marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot-com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.

The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4 percent.

A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involve unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message.Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasing more popular with a lot of companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social network services such as Facebook.

Reasons for display advertising

Display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. Display is not only used for generating awareness, it’s used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear ‘call to action’.

Public service advertising

The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS, political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.

Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest—it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy.

Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.

In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.

Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear.