Граматика / English Syntax

In the second clause of (112) we have deleted the string interrupt the speaker. Now, because this string contains the main verb interrupt, and we have a stranded Adjunct here ( politely), we must be dealing with a deleted V0-constituent. Notice that this time the Adjunct is positioned before the deletion site. Because Adjuncts like rudely and politely are adjoined to V0, we know that the string rudely/politely interrupt the speaker is also a V0.

In this chapter we looked at Movement and Substitution as tests for constituency. In the next chapter we’ll be looking at a few additional tests.

Key Concepts in this Chapter

constituency constituency tests

Movement test Substitution test

Exercises

1.Draw the trees for the following sentences. Give reasons for your analysis.

(i)The big blue balloon exploded.

(ii)I will buy some chocolates this afternoon.

(iii)She could act extremely well.

(iv)She believes that her best friend is a genius.

(v)We quickly decided that we should leave.

2.In the text we assigned the following structure to the PP (six women) with yellow hats on their heads (cf. (60)):

218Constituency: Movement and Substitution

(i)PP

Spec P0

PNP

A further possible analysis is shown in (ii):

(ii)PP

Spec P0

PNP

The di erence between (i) and (ii) is that in (ii) yellow hats is a constituent, whereas in (i) it is not. Conversely, hats on their heads is a constituent in (i), but not in (ii). Both (i) and (ii) conform to X0-theory, but they might be said to represent di erent meanings, namely ‘yellow hats which happen to be on their heads’ and ‘hats on their heads which happen to be yellow’. Which structure corresponds with which meaning? Explain your answer.

3.When we discussed VP-Preposing in Section 11.1.1.2, we saw that this process always leaves behind an auxiliary verb. Consider now the following sets of sentences in which there is more than one auxiliary verb:

(i)They say he may have been killing flies,

(a). . . and [killing flies] he may have been —

(b). . . and [so] he may have been —

(c). . . [which] he may have been —

(ii)They say he may have been killing flies,

(a). . . and [been killing flies] he may have —

(b). . . and [so] he may have —

(c). . . [which] he may have —

(iii)They say he may have been killing flies,

(a)and [have been killing flies] he may —

(b)and [so] he may —

(c). . . [which] he may —

Assuming that these sentences are grammatical (not everyone will agree), and also assuming that Verb Phrases have been preposed in the (a) sentences, or substituted by the proforms so or which in the

(b) and (c) sentences (and then preposed), draw the tree structure for the sentence He may have been killing flies. Does the structure you have produced accord with the structure of sentences with multiple auxiliaries proposed in Chapter 9?

4.In many textbooks on English syntax it is assumed that Verb Phrases only contain verbs. Below you will find two common analyses of the Verb Phrase in English. The example sentence used is Nicholas will burn the toast:

and to kill that poor fly, which would be a clause without an overt Subject (but whose Subject would be interpreted to be the same as the Complement of the preposition, i.e. him). Using the tests discussed in this chapter, show which of these options is correct. Make sure that the meaning of the sentence does not change if you apply Movement.

*7. The phrase in (i) below is structurally ambiguous, and can hence be assigned two di erent tree diagrams. Explain the ambiguity and draw the trees.

(i)the e ects of violence on teenagers

*8. Although we haven’t discussed NP-Movement as a test for constituency in this chapter, we can use it as such. Consider the sentences below:

(i)Charlie saw the book on the table.

(ii)Charlie put the book on the table.

Using NP-Movement as a test, show how the constituency of these sentences is di erent, despite their superficial similarity as NP–V– NP–PP structures. Draw the trees for (i) and (ii). Notice that (i) is ambiguous.

*9. Show how the Substitution test discussed in this chapter confirms your analyses of (i) and (ii) in Exercise 8.

*10. Our discussion of movement in Chapter 9 and in this chapter has not dealt with all possible displacements in English. In this exercise we will look at a few further possibilities, specifically some types of inversion in English. Here are two examples:

Inversion around be

(i)a New York is the ultimate city in the world.

bThe ultimate city in the world is New York.

This inversion process can be used as a test to demonstrate the constituent status of the strings New York and the ultimate city in the world. You might initially have been tempted to suppose that in the world does not form a unit with the ultimate city. How does (ii) below put you on the right track?

(ii)*The ultimate city is New York in the world.

Consider next the sentences below:

Subject–Auxiliary Inversion (SAI )

(iii)a Katie will pass her driving test.

bWill Katie pass her driving test?

Here we see that a Subject and an auxiliary verb (a modal) have swapped places. Inversion is one of the NICE properties of auxiliaries which we introduced in Chapter 3. How can we use the pair of sentences in (iii) to bolster our claim (made in Chapter 8 and in this chapter) that modal auxiliaries are not inside VP, but are dominated by a separate node which we labelled ‘I’?

*11. In Section 11.1.2.2 we discussed the extraposition of Subject clauses, as in That Henry made that comment obviously irritated her > It obviously irritated her that Henry made that comment. Consider now the sentences below:

(i)I consider it a problem that you didn’t write that report.

(ii)*I consider that you didn’t write that report a problem.

What’s going on here? As a starting point, think about the functional status of the extraposed that-clause in (i).

*12. How is the sentence below a problem for our claim regarding the proform one?

(i)I like the review of the book, but not the one of the film.

Further Reading

Most textbooks on syntax do not discuss the various constituency tests together in one place, though some of the tests discussed here are dealt with in Radford (1988), Chapter 2. On constituency and sentential reorderings see also Huddleston (1984), Section 1.2 and Chapter 14, as well as Rochemont and Culicover (1990).

(4)S

The constituents inside the VPs of both (3) and (4) are the (empty) Specifier position, the higher V0, the lower V0, the main verb and the Direct Object NP, as well as the Adjunct NP in (3) and the Adjunct AdvP in (4). The constituent status of all of these is confirmed by the fact that they can be coordinated with other similar units:

(5)Frank washed and ironed his shirts yesterday. (coordinated main verbs)

(6)Frank washed his shirts and polished his shoes yesterday. (coordinated lower V-bars)

(7)Frank washed his shirts yesterday and last week. (coordinated adjunct NPs)

(8)Frank washed his shirts yesterday and polished his shoes last week. (coordinated higher V-bars)

(9)Michael loudly announced and decried the election victory. (coordinated main verbs)

(10)Anna loudly announced the election victory and gave an interview to the press. (coordinated lower V-bars)

(11)Anna loudly and cheerfully announced the election victory. (coordinated AdvPs)

(12)Anna loudly announced the election victory and cheerfully gave an interview to the press. (coordinated higher V-bars)

We will call the type of coordination exemplified above Ordinary Coordination. Consider now (13)–(15):

(13)Frank washed the shirts, and Dick ironed the shirts.

(14)Frank will wash the shirts, but Dick won’t wash the shirts.

(15)Frank will iron the shirts tomorrow, but Dick won’t iron the shirts tomorrow.