- •Alexander kamensky
- •4.5. Conclusions 93
- •5.7. Conclusions 108
- •7.8. Conclusions 163
- •8.7. Conclusions 202
- •9.6. Conclusions 205
- •9.2.2. Grammar 209
- •9.4. Aims of teaching reading in a secondary school 219
- •9.5. How to teach reading 224
- •9.6. Conclusions 233
- •Introduction
- •1.1. Reasons for learning languages
- •1.2. Success in language learning
- •1.2.1. Motivation
- •1.2.2. Extrinsic motivation
- •1.2.3. Intrinsic motivation
- •He teaches good pronunciation.
- •He explains clearly.
- •He speaks good English.
- •1.3. Motivational differences
- •1.3.1. Children
- •1.3.2. Adolescents
- •1.3.3. Adult beginners
- •1.3.4. Adult intermediate students
- •1.3.5. Adult advanced students
- •1.4. Conclusions
- •2. Areas of a native speaker knowledge
- •2.1. Pronunciation
- •2.1.1. Sounds
- •2.1.2. Stress
- •2.1.3. Intonation
- •2.2. Grammar
- •2.3. Vocabulary
- •2.4. Discourse
- •2.4.1. Appropriateness
- •2.4.1.1. Communicative competence
- •2.4.1.2. Interaction with context
- •2.4.1.3. Structuring discourse
- •2.4.2. Global communicative competence
- •2.5. Language skills
- •2.5.1. Skills and sub-skills
- •2.6. Conclusions
- •3. What a language student should learn
- •3.1. Pronunciation
- •3.1.1. The importance of listening
- •3.2. Grammar
- •3.2.1. The importance of language awareness
- •3.3. Vocabulary
- •3.3.1. Vocabulary in context
- •3.4. Discourse
- •3.4.1. Language functions
- •3.5. Skills
- •3.6. The syllabus
- •3.6.1. Structures and functions
- •3.6.2. Vocabulary
- •3.6.3. Situation, topic and task
- •3.6.4. The syllabus and student needs
- •3.7. Language varieties
- •3.8. Conclusions
- •4.1. Methods of language teaching
- •4.1.1. Traditional learning theories and approaches
- •4.1.1.1. Grammar-translation method
- •4.1.1.2. Direct method
- •4.1.2. Behaviourism: Audio-lingual method
- •4.1.3. Cognitivism
- •4.1.3.1. Structural approach
- •4.1.3.2. Structural-situational method
- •4.1.3.3. Situational syllabus
- •4.1.4. Communicative approach
- •4.1.5. Functional-notional courses
- •Functions and notions
- •4.1.6. Acquisition and learning
- •Intonation
- •4.1.7. Task-based learning
- •4.1.8. Humanistic approaches
- •4.1.9. Self-directed learning
- •4.1.10. Neuro-Linguistic Programming
- •4.2. Foreign language learning
- •4.3. Input and output
- •4.4. A balanced activities approach
- •4.5. Conclusions
- •5. Teaching the productive skills
- •5.1. The nature of communication
- •5.2. The information gap
- •5.3. The communication continuum
- •Communicative Activities
- •5.4. Stages in language learning/ teaching
- •5.4.1. Introducing new language
- •5.4.2. Practice
- •5.4.3. Communicative activities
- •5.4.4. The relationship between different stages
- •5.5. Integrating skills
- •5.6. Speaking and writing
- •5.7. Conclusions
- •6. Typology of exercises in teaching english
- •6.1. What is an exercise: Psychological and pedagogical background
- •6.1.1. Exercise as an item of teaching
- •6.1.2. Teaching curve
- •6.1.3. Structure of an exercise
- •Exercise
- •1. Instruction
- •2. Model
- •3. Control
- •6.2. Different approaches to the problem of classification of exercises
- •6.3. Criteria of classification of exercises: Types and kinds
- •6.4. System of exercises
- •6.4.1. Basic notions of a system, subsystem, complex, series, cycle, group of exercises
- •4 Skills
- •6.4.2. Characteristics of the system of exercises
- •6.4.3. Basic methodological principles of constructing the system of exercises
- •6.5. Conclusions
- •7.1. Speaking as a skill
- •7.2. Aims of teaching speaking in a secondary school
- •7.3. Linguistic peculiarities of dialogical speech
- •7.3.1. Functional correlation of dialogue replies
- •7.3.2. Structural correlation of replies
- •7.3.3. Kinds of dialogical unit
- •7.3.4. Functional types of dialogue
- •7.4. Stages of teaching dialogue
- •7.4.1. Dialogical unit as an item of teaching
- •7.4.2. Communicative situations
- •7.4.3. Four faces of a situation
- •7.4.4. System of exercises in teaching dialogical speech
- •7.4.4.1. Exercises of group 1
- •7.4.4.2. Exercises of group 2
- •7.4.4.3. Exercises of group 3
- •7.4.4.4. Exercises of group 4
- •7.5. Psychological and linguistic peculiarities of dialogic and monologic speech. Types of monologue
- •7.5.1. Psychological characteristics of dialogue and monologue
- •7.5.2. Linguistic characteristics of dialogue and monologue
- •7.6. Functional types of monologue
- •7.7. System of exercises in teaching monologic speech
- •7.7.1. Exercises of group I
- •7.7.2. Exercises of Group 2
- •Verbal sound and illustrative (visual) aids
- •7.7.3. Exercises of group 3
- •7.8. Conclusions
- •8. Teaching the receptive skills: listening
- •8.7. Conclusions
- •8.1. Role and place of listening in teaching English
- •8.2. Listening as a skill in real-life communication
- •8.3. Typology of listening
- •8.3.1. Kinds of listening
- •8.3.2. Types of listening
- •8.4. Types of text for teaching listening in school
- •8.4.1. Authentic and non-authentic listening
- •8.4.2. Structure of texts for listening
- •8.4.3. Types of text for listening
- •8.5. Major premises and conditions for effective teaching listening
- •8.5.1. Major premises for listening
- •8.5.2. Conditions for effective listening
- •8.6. System of exercises in teaching listening comprehension in school
- •8.6.1. Preparatory exercises: Isolating the listening skill
- •8.6.2. Preparatory exercises: Non-isolated listening skill
- •8.6.2.1. Exercises in finding grammatical cues
- •8.6.2.2. Exercises in guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words
- •8.6.2.3. Exercises in understanding sentences containing unfamiliar words which do not interfere with comprehension
- •8.6.2.4. Exercises in anticipation
- •8.6.2.5. Exercises in eliciting different categories of meaningful information (time, space, cause, effect, etc.)
- •8.6.2.6. Exercises in estimating types of cohesion
- •8.6.2.7. Exercises in telling the main idea in a group of sentences
- •8.6.2.8. Exercises in developing auditive memory and attention
- •8.6.3. Authentic listening material
- •8.6.3.1. Authentic listening material at the early stages
- •8.6.3.2. Communicative exercises: Teaching listening as a skill
- •8.6.4. Using listening comprehension dialogues in class
- •8.6.5. How to justify the use of songs
- •8.7. Conclusions
- •9. Teaching the receptive skills: reading
- •9.2.2. Grammar
- •9.6. Conclusions
- •9.1. Reading as perception of information
- •9.1.1. Vocalisation and verbose
- •9.1.2. Redundancy
- •9.1.2.1. Uncertainty and information
- •9.1.2.2. Sources of redundancy
- •9.2. Reading as interpretation of information
- •9.2.1. Surface and deep structures
- •9.2.2. Grammar
- •9.2.3. Learning: Knowledge
- •9.2.4. Three faces of memory
- •9.3. Reading as a skill
- •9.3.1. Reading in real life: Functions
- •9.3.2. Interest and usefulness
- •9.3.3. Purpose and expectations
- •9.3.4. Specialist skills of reading
- •9.3.4.1. Predictive skills
- •9.3.4.2. Extracting specific information
- •9.3.4.3. Getting the general picture
- •9.3.4.4. Extracting detailed information
- •9.3.4.5. Recognising function and discourse patterns
- •9.3.4.6. Deducing meaning from context
- •9.4. Aims of teaching reading in a secondary school
- •9.4.1. Reading as a vehicle of teaching
- •9.4.2. Aims of teaching reading in school
- •9.4.3. Kinds of reading mastered in school
- •9.4.4. Techniques of reading and stages of teaching
- •9.5. How to teach reading
- •9.5.1. Teaching reading aloud
- •9.5.1.1. Three methods of teaching reading aloud
- •9.5.1.2. Grapheme-phonemic exercises
- •9.5.1.3. Structural information exercises
- •9.5.2. Teaching silent reading
- •9.5.2.1. The twin problem of analysis and synthesis
- •9.5.2.2. Semantic-communicative exercises
- •9.6. Conclusions
5.6. Speaking and writing
At this point it might be a good idea to make some comparisons between written and spoken English. This is so because differences imply different types of exercises, which focus on different aspects of language and demand different levels of correctness.
Written word and oral speech as two forms of human communication differ in their realisation. Oral speech is realised in sounding word while written word is realised in its optic-graphic from. Y. Vakhek defines written word as ‘…the system of signs that can be realised graphically. The function of these signs is to respond to a given stimulus in a static way, i.e. the answer should be stable (able to be kept in time) providing both complete comprehension and clear reflection of the facts transmitted and underlining the logical side of the facts. On the other hand, oral language is the system of signs that can be realised acoustically. The function of these signs is to respond to a given stimulus dynamically, i.e. the answer should be quick, complete and it should stress both the content and emotional side of the facts we are interested in’.
The only fact that language users face the choice between two specifically different substances of expressing themselves shows that these substances cannot be treated as something insignificant. On the contrary, these substances should be considered as main functional factors. Their differences are manifold. They can be analysed either diachronically or synchronically, as well as from the angle of their place and role in communication, etc. What is important is the majority of linguists (B.M. Gasparov, R. Kwerk and B. Strang) stick to the point that there does exist a gulf between structures of written and oral English even in speech of educated, competent users of the language. The main differences between written and oral realisations of speech can be shown as follows:
Physical differences |
|
Written word |
Oral speech |
substance – fixed signs against the contrasting background |
substance – acoustic sound waves spread in the air with the frequency 16 Hz – 4.5 kHz |
reproduced with a hand (and a tool of writing or printing) |
generated by lungs and vocal chords |
organs of perception are eyes (visual channel) |
organs of perception are eyes and ears (visual and oral channels) |
displayed in linear succession (in space) |
displayed in time successively and simultaneously |
speech as process is displayed as a observed speech chain; it is produced with a certain effort (because writing a text needs mental and physical strain); it is produced rather slow (if not using the computer) |
speech as process is not visually observed, irreversible, ephemeral; it is produced with less effort comparing with writing; shows itself easily as a rule and rather rapidly (the average tempo is more than 160 syllables per minute) |
as result it is fixed against contrasting background; the text is stable, static and can be used by practically unlimited number of readers limitlessly in time |
as result it is fixed only as mental, verbal and vocal image in the listener’s memory store; the result can be used by non-participants of the communicative act only in case of fixing it with the help of a technical device (or the communicative act participants’ reproduction word-for-word) |
reproduction of speech for a reader in the form of a text can be done at a very great speed practically instantly (with the help of a computer) |
reproduction of speech fixed on a tape can be done at the same speed speech was fixed |
transmitted mainly from one person to unlimited number of readers |
transmitted to definite participants of the communicative act, as a rule; very often from one speaker to a single listener |
Psychological differences |
|
speech is preliminary thought over, as a rule; it is planned beforehand; notes can be made, citations can be selected, etc. |
speech is spontaneous, as a rule; it is not planned in advance; thinking over is usually done in the most global, general, non-discrete, inlaid form under the strain of speech intentions |
in the process of production the text is carefully controlled, processed, perfected and if necessary is partially or completely remade and edited. There is a limitless possibility to cross out words and sentences and add whatever needed. All this results in potentially correct, normative, processed speech |
the process of production is in many ways determined by the conditions of the communicative act (setting, participants, etc.), but in any case, the speaker is deprived of the possibility to process his own speech carefully; he cannot eliminate what has already been said, even if he thinks that some more appropriate variant can be used |
the writer has a limitless possibility to return to the corresponding fragment of a written text or re-read the whole text when he feels the urge to |
the speaker/listener is usually deprived of the possibility to return to what has already been said because of an irreversible character of oral speech |
realised in the form of written monologue (sometimes dialogue). It is taught mainly through writing and reading |
realised in the form of oral dialogue and monologue. It is taught mainly through speaking and listening |
Information in the utterance is strongly logically and consistently organised. Additional information is usually complete, exact and rather detailed. All implications are supplied in the context. Main information is usually introduced in the beginning of a passage and supported by minor facts and details |
information contained in the utterance is dispersed unevenly: additional information is usually omitted. It seems to be implied by a situation. Main information is usually introduced in the beginning of the utterance, e.g.: - Where were you last night, Bob? - Oh, at the Stubbs’, they were throwing a swell party, you know. |
Linguistic differences |
|
- redundancy is utilised in sentences realised in verbal explanatory context; - striving for versatile structures; wide usage of complex and compound sentences, variability of contexts providing wide range of possibilities to use language means and stylistic devices to the full in all genres and functional styles of written English; - accuracy in word, grammar and thought formation and formulation; irregularities in writing, as well as structural, compositional and logical organisation of the utterance are considered by the overwhelming majority of competent users of the language as illiteracy |
- compression and redundancy is utilised in phrases realised in communicative situations; - striving for the stereotype pattern of speech form; wide usage of ready-made formulas, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, striving for constant renewing of the stock of language items (occasionalisms, innovations as longing for speech creativity); - hesitations, false starts, delay words, structural inconsistency, self-interruptions and self-correcting under the influence of feedback: - irregular individualised pausing; - irregularity of compression of the utterance content; - prosodic shaping peculiarities; - phonetic shaping inaccuracy peculiarities, etc. |
Potentially differences in written word and oral speech are able to make the interlocutors interpret one and the same (identical) propositional content in a different way. The difference in apprehension depends on the kind of speech realisation: written or oral.
If we compare a written notice ‘Occupied’ indicating that some seats in a tourist class on board a plane are reserved and a piece of oral information ‘I’m sorry, these seats are occupied’ pronounced by a smiling stewardess, we shall see that the oral variant is more preferable. This is so because oral speech is poli-informative. It is able to transmit much greater amount of information than written word. Oral speech does not just transmit the main meaning of the content of a piece of information vocalised, its denotative and significative meaning. Potentially, oral speech is also capable to transmit a considerable amount of additional shades of meaning. This additional information includes connotative meaning, let alone other expressive means of human voice modulations. (It’s not without reason that B. Shaw used to say: There’re 50 ways of saying ‘yes’, 500 ways to say ‘no’, but there’s only one way to write it.)
To realise even a small part of connotative (additional) information in writing, we have to use long periods of descriptive origin, sometimes rather profound in length. We can illustrate this with a piece of writing taken from ‘Strangers When We Meet’ by E. Hunter:
‘Don’t cry. Mommy’s here,’ she said soothingly, over and over again. ‘Don’t cry’.
‘I’ll get him,’ Ramsay shouted.
‘Do you?’ he asked coldly.
‘I’m sure’, he said honestly.
‘Really?’ Margaret asked feigning surprise and innocence, hating the game, not wanting to see her…
In this example the author had to use a wide range of descriptive means to express in writing a whole complex of emotions and feelings swept over Margaret and revealed in one single word ‘Really?’ pronounced by the main character of the book.