21.The notion of frame for conceptual analysis

Frame analysis is neither a full-fledged theoretical paradigm, nor a coherent methodological approach. Rather, frame analyses are a number of related, even though sometimes partially incompatible methods for the analysis of discourses.

The identification of frames is not a theoretical end in itself, but aims to contribute to the explanation of cultural dynamics. A number of related theoretical concepts enhance framing theories in this respect. Several important add-ons of this kind are discussed below, namely:

mechanisms that enhance the viability of frames, of these what has been termed empirical credibility and narrative fidelity will be discussed;

a typology of frames that occur particularly frequently;

frame alignment processes, which systematize the transformation of and relationships between frames;

valence framing, which explains attitudinal changes due to framing.

22.Frames and their types

Frame Viability

Not all frames have the same chances for catching on. Several mechanisms that render frames particularly viable have been suggested, most notably narrative fidelity and empirical credibility. Besides frames that comply with either of these two criteria or both, there also exist particularly frequent frames: Some of these "masterframes" evoke enduring cultural themes, which are culturally resonant regardless of their empirical adequacy. Other frames have been found to occur particularly frequently in media discourses. This section will first discuss aforementioned mechanisms and then present a typology of the most frequently occurring frames.

Narrative Fidelity and Empirical Credibility

One of the most important viability attributes of frames is their narrative fidelity, that is, the congruence of a frame with the life experience of its addressees.

A Frame Taxonomy

These particularly frequent frames can be systematized with the help of a taxonomy that has been developed in recent framing studies.

Generic Frames (Journalistic Schemes)

Studies of journalistic practices have shown that the routinizing element of the profession have produced general patterns in news stories. These patterns are usually called "generic frames" or "structural themes", even though it is hard to tell, what distinguishes them analytically from other frequently occurring frames that have been termed "content frames". The label "journalistic schemes" might thus be more appropriate, but for the sake of terminological continuity, they will here be called "generic frames".

Frame Alignment Processes

Frames are never constructed from scratch, but always draw on already existing cultural codes. In their seminal article, Snow et al. (1986) distinguish four processes, through which frames become aligned among each other, frame amplification, frame extension, frame transformation and frame bridging.

Frame Amplification

The most basic frame alignment is called frame amplification. Frame amplification simply denotes 'the clarification and invigoration of an interpretive frame that bears on a particular issue, problem or set of events'. Since frame amplification applies to already existing frames, it can only be utilized for frame maintenance, but not for the construction of new frames. Frame amplification can also fortify the identity of their targets by delivering a strong 'negative' identity. Frame amplification, of course, can also be reversed, which would mean a blurring of a frame, or the display of its remoteness from particular issues, problems or events.

Frame Extension

Frame extension adds to a frame certain issues or dimensions, which hitherto were of no relevance for it. The main goal of frame extension is to make the frame more attractive to its potential adherents with different priorities. For instance, a group primarily concerned with environmental issues could include a platform against nuclear energy and frame its risks as environmental ones. Frame extension often comes at a cost, though, as it can weaken the appeal of a frame through clouding the essence of its contents.

Frame Bridging

Similarly to frame extension, frame bridging constitutes the 'linkage of two or more ideologically congruent, but structurally unconnected frames,'. A typical example of frame bridging is the connection of the thematically fairly unrelated ecology, women's and queer movements into a single "New Social Movements" industry.