Lecture 2. The Sentence Structure

2.1 Word Order

English is generally considered to be a language with a relatively fixed word order. In practice, this means that the positions of the subject S, the main verb V, and the object O are fixed in relation to each other. In normal statements, which form the bulk of technical and scientific writing, these items occur regularly in the order S-V-O.

subject (S) verb (V) object (O)

Many flexible objects and structures undergo large deformations.

The problem in technical and scientific writing is that parts of a sentence, particularly the subject, can become too long and complex, and therefore the basic structure may not be always clear.

In these cases it is important for writers to pay attention to subject-verb agreement because errors can lead to gross confusion.

In principle, the story is a simple one: the verb (predicate) must agree with the subject in number and person: a singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb. This simple rule works in most cases and should thus be followed wherever appropriate. It follows that we must correctly identify the subject that is not necessarily a noun / pronoun (it may be gerund or infinitive) and it does not always take the first place in the sentence (we may have inversions or adverbial modifiers in the beginning):

The study shows the importance of measuring blood concentrations at the specified intervals.

The studies show the importance of measuring blood concentrations at the specified intervals.

One of the problems is that we are often unsure of the subject in the sentence, especially if the sentence is long and the verb is far removed from its subject. Sometimes, such sentences can be cured of their lack of subject-verb agreement by rearranging the syntax.

Incorrect: The generation of excessively large sets of data were responsible for the delay in finalizing the study.

Incorrect: The effects of alcohol on enzyme induction was studied in vitro.

The subject of the first sentence is “generation,” a singular noun requiring a singular verb (i.e., was). In the second sentence, the subject is plural (i.e., “effects”); thus, the plural “were” is correct.

Correct: The generation of … data was responsible for the delay in finalizing the study.

Correct: The effects … were studied in vitro.

Another frequent problem is the erroneous use of plural terms, irregular plurals (datum/data, radius/radii, formula/formulae). Many writers use plural words as singular nouns, not realizing that these terms have, in fact, a matching singular form. The table below shows some typical examples of plurals erroneously used as singulars.

Incorrect	Correct
The main study criteria was the reduction in death rate at the end of the 3-month treatment period. The data was analyzed descriptively. The causative bacteria was identified. The media used in the incubation experiments was free of glucose.	The main study criterion was the reduction in death rate at the end of the 3-month treatment period. The data were analyzed descriptively. The causative bacteria were identified. The medium used in the incubation experiments was free of glucose. Or (if several media were used): The media used in the incubation experiments were free of glucose.

A few nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning (e.g., news). Other nouns have no plural form and therefore always take the singular verb (e.g., information). Moreover, some singular nouns look like plurals because of their “s” at the end (e.g., measles).

While most nouns are clearly either singular or plural in both sense and form, there are some exceptions that may cause difficulties. A collective noun indicates a group or collection of persons, organizations, things, or qualities. The table below shows some typical collective nouns.

Type of collective noun	Example
Groups of people Organizations Things (e.g., data) Qualities / disciplines	Audience, public, staff, personnel, crew, class, couple, team Police, government, army, faculty Percent, majority Genetics, pharmacokinetics, statistics, toxicokinetics, genomics

The general rule is that such nouns are plural in meaning but singular in form.

However, if the individual members of a group or constituents of a collection are emphasized, the plural verb is correct. The table below shows examples of collective nouns that can be either singular or plural in meaning.

Singular

Plural

The couple needs counseling. (Couple is considered a unit; thus, the singular verb is appropriate.) The police is an important institution. (Police is considered an organization; thus, the singular verb is appropriate.) The faculty has recently been reformed. (Faculty is considered a unit; thus, the singular verb is appropriate.) The majority of his time goes into report writing (Majority is considered an amount; thus, the singular verb is appropriate.) Ten percent of her income goes to the research foundation. (Ten percent is regarded as an amount; thus, the singular verb is appropriate.) Genetics is a popular field of research nowadays. (Genetics is regarded as a discipline; thus, the singular verb is appropriate.)

The couple work at two different hospitals. (Couple is regarded as the two individuals, rather than a unit; thus, the plural verb is appropriate.) The police were quick to respond to the alarm. (Police refers to the individual members rather than the organization as a whole; thus, the plural verb is appropriate.) The faculty come from many different areas. (Faculty refers to the individual members rather than the group as a whole; thus, the plural verb is appropriate.) The majority of results were correct. (Majority refers to the individual results rather than the collection as a whole; thus, the plural verb is appropriate.) Ten percent of the staff work flexible hours. (Ten percent is regarded as composed of each individual staff member; thus, the plural verb is appropriate.) The genetics of the fruit fly were elucidated in our laboratory. (Genetics refers to the individual findings; thus, the plural verb is appropriate.)