The Plan for Rendering the Text

The main idea of the text is...

The text is about...

The text is devoted to...

The text deals with...

The purpose of the text is to give the reader some information on...

The aim of the text is to provide the reader with some material (data) on...

Much attention is given to...

It should be stressed that...

Special attention is paid to...

(Your opinion on the text)

I found the text interesting (important, of no value, informative, useful).

It gives the reader some information on...

We have come to know and understand a lot of things.

Unit 3

Pre-text assignments

1 Learn the key words and phrases:

axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, cartilaginous part, thoracic cage, hyoid bone, larynx, vertebral column, tailbone, sternum, pectorial girdle, pelvic girdle

2 Use the following expressions in the sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use:

1 It includes ... 2 Scientists consider that ... 3 It performs (they perform) the function of ... 4 The investigators determined ... 5 The most complicated structure ... 6 They are transmitted from ... 7 It depends upon ...

The Skeleton

For purposes of study, it is convenient to divide the skeleton into two major portions—an axial skeleton and an appendicular skeleton.

The axial skeleton consists of the bony and cartilaginous parts that support and protect the organs of the head, neck, and trunk. These parts include the following:

1 Skull. The skull is composed of the cranium (brain case) and the facial bones.

2 Hyoid bone. The hyoid bone is located in the neck between the lower jaw and the larynx. It does not articulate with any other bones, but is fixed in position by muscles and ligaments. The hyoid bone supports the tongue and serves as an attachment for certain muscles that help move the tongue and function in swallowing. It can be felt approximately a finger’s width above the anterior prominence of the larinx.

3 Vertebral column. The vertebral column, or backbone, consists of many vertebrae separated by cartilaginous intervertebral disks. This column forms the central axis of the skeleton. Near its distal end, several vertebrae are fused to form the sacrum, which is part of the pelvis. A small, rudimentary tailbone called the coccyx is attached to the end of the sacrum.

4 Thoracic cage. The thoracic cage protects the organs of the thorax and the upper abdomen. It is composed of twelve pairs of ribs, which articulate posteriorly with thoracic vertebrae. It also includes the sternum, or breastbone, to which most of the ribs are attached anteriorly.

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones the limbs and the bones that anchor the limbs to the axial skeleton. It includes the following:

1 Pectoral girdle. The pectoral girdle is formed by a scapula, or shoulder blade, and a clavicle, or collarbone, on both sides of the body. The pectoral girdle connects the bones of the arms lo the axial skeleton and aids in arm movements.

2 Upper limbs (arms). Each upper limb consists of a humerus, or upper arm bone, and two lower arm bones—a radius and an ulna. These three bones articulate with each other at the elbow joint. At the distal end of the radius and ulna, are eight carpals, or wrist bones. The bones of the palm are called metacarpals, and the finger bones are called phalanges.

3 Pelvic girdle. The pelvic girdle is formed by two coxal, or innominate bones (hipbones), which are attached to each other anteriorly and to the sacrum posteriorly. They connect the bones of the legs to the

axial skeleton and, with the sacrum and coccyx, form the pelvis, which protects the lower abdominal and internal reproductive organs.

4 Lower limbs (legs). Each lower limb consists of a femur, or thighbone, and two lower leg bones—a large tibia, or shinbone, and a slender fibula, or calf bone. These three bones articulate with each other at the knee joint, where the patella, or kneecap covers the anterior surface. At the distal ends of the tibia and fibula, are seven tarsals, or anklebones. The bones of the foot are called metatarsals, and those of the toes (like the fingers) are called phalanges.

Post-text assignments

1 Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeletons.

2 List the bones of the axial skeleton; of the appendicular skeleton (Drawings 1,2).

Unit 4

Pre-text assignments

1 Learn the key words and phrases:

broken, bone, blood clot, dilate, osteoblasts, multiply, fibroblasts, fibrocartilage, affected, osteoclasts, callus, hyaline, cartilage, endochondral bone, casts, metal pins

2 Match the terms to following definitions:

1) a tumour or swelling containing blood a) debris

2) one of the minute red granules of new b) granulation

capillaries formed on the surface of a c) cast

wound in healing d) hematoma

3) a large amount of fibrocartilage fills e) cartilaginous callus

the gap between the ends of the broken

bone

4) the remains of something broken

down or destroyed

5) a rigid dressing of gauze impregnated

with plaster of Paris for immobilizing a

diseased or broken part