Appendix

Texts for additional reading.

Translate the following texts with the help of a dictionary.

Text 1

Sociology

What is Society? – Perhaps the great question which sociology seeks to answer is this question. Just as biology seeks to answer the question “What is life?”; zoology, “What is an animal?”; botany, “What is a plant?”; so sociology seeks to answer the question “What is society?” or perhaps better, “What is association?”. Just as biology, zoology, and botany cannot answer their questions until those sciences have reached their full and complete development, so also sociology cannot answer the question. “What is society?” until it reaches its final development. We must understand in a general way what society is, what sociology is, and what the relations are between sociology and other sciences, before we can study the social problems of to-day from a sociological point of view.

The word “society” is used scientifically to designate the reciprocal relations between individuals. Society is constituted by the mental interaction of individuals and exists wherever two or three individuals have conscious relations to each other.

What is Sociology? – The science which deals with human association, its origin, development, form, and functions, is sociology. Briefly, sociology is a science which deals with society as a whole and not with its separate aspects or phases. It attempts to formulate the laws or principles which govern social organization and social evolution. This means that the main problems of sociology are those of the organization of society on the one hand and the evolution of society on the other.

The problems of sociology fall into two great classes: first, problems of the organization of society, and the second, problems of the evolution of society. The problems of the organization of society are problems of the relations of individuals to one another and to institutions. Such problems are, for example, the influence of various elements in the physical environment upon the social organization; or, again, the influence of various elements in human nature upon the social order. But the problems which are of most interest and importance in sociology are those of social evolution.

Sociology has to depend upon the other natural sciences, particularly upon biology and psychology. Sociology must depend upon biology, since biology is the general science of life, and human society is but part of the world of life in general. Sociology must depend upon psychology to explain the interactions between individuals because these interactions are for the most part interactions between their minds.

A word may be said about the relation of sociology to another science which also deals with human society in a general way, and that is history. History is a concrete, descriptive science of society which attempts to construct a picture of the social past. Sociology is narrower than history as it is an abstract science, and in another sense it is wider than history because it concerns itself not only with the social past but also with the social present.

Economics is that special social science which deals with the wealth - getting and wealth – using activities of man. In other words, it is concerned with the commercial and industrial activities of man.

It is, indeed, very difficult to separate ethics from sociology. It is the business of sociology to furnish norms and standards of ethics, and it is the business of ethics as a science to take the norms and standards furnished by the social sciences, to develop them and to criticize them.

Among the applied sciences, sociology is especially closely related to education, for education is not simply the art of developing the powers and capacities of the individual; it is rather the fitting of individuals for efficient membership, for proper functioning in social life. Social problems touch education on every side, and on the other hand, education must bear upon every social problem.

Text 2

Computing

From elementary school to high school we learn to compute with one form of data: numbers. Our first use of numbers is to count real things, say, three apples, five friends, twelve bagels. Later we use numbers without any appeal to concrete objects, but we have learned that numbers represent information in the real world.

Computing with software is algebra for all kinds of data, not just numbers. Nowadays, computer programs process representations of music, molecules, law cases, electrical diagrams, architectures of houses, and poems. Fortunately, we have learned to represent information with other forms of data than just numbers. Otherwise, computing and programming would become extremely tedious tasks.

Above all, we shouldn’t forget that computing means manipulating data through proper basic operations. Some operations create new values. Others extract values from values. Yet others modify values. Finally, there are also basic operations for determining to which class a piece of data belongs. Built – in operations and functions are of course just another class of data. Definition is value creation; application is a form of value extraction.

When we define a function, we combine basic data operations. There are two fundamental mechanisms for combining functions: function composition and conditional expressions. The former means that the result of one function becomes the argument of another one

The latter represents a choice among several possibilities. When we eventually apply a function, we trigger a computation.

Using the laws of basic operations and the laws of operation combination we can understand how any function processes its input data and how it produces its results and effects. Because the computer is extremely fast and good at using these laws, it can perform such evaluations for more data and for larger programs than we can do with paper and pencil.

Text 3

Computing and Programming

Many professions require some form of computer programming. Accountants program spreadsheets and word processors; photographers program photo editors; musicians program synthesizers; and professional programmers instruct plain computers.

Yet programming is more than just a vocational skill. Indeed, good programming is a fun activity, a creative outlet and a way to express abstract ideas in a tangible form. And designing program teaches a variety of skills that are important in all kinds of professions; critical reading, analytical thinking; creative synthesis.

The study of program design deserves the same central role in general education as mathematics and English.

Everyone should learn how to design programs. Once the one hand, program design teaches the same analytical skills as mathematics.

But, unlike mathematics, working with programs is an active approach to learning. Interacting with software provides immediate feedback and thus leads to exploration and self – evaluation. Furthermore, designing programs produces useful and fun things, which vastly increases the sense of accomplishment when compared with exercises in mathematics. On the other hand, program design teaches the same analytical reading and writing skills as English.

Even the smallest programming tasks are formulated as word problems. Without critical reading skills, a student cannot design programs that match specification. Conversely, good program design methods force a student to articulate thoughts about programs in proper English.

Text 4

Why Do Nations Trade?

The economy of a country grows faster when it trades with other nations rather than producing goods and services for just its home market.

For example, Great Britain was the world’s most efficient producer of textiles, while Portugal, with its ideal climate and fertile soil produced fine wines. By concentrating labour and resources on what each did best and by exchanging these products, the two countries had all the wine and textiles they needed, plus money left over to make or buy other goods.

Most countries have a particular strength or comparative advantage – such as location, natural resources, climate, skilled labour, capital, or technical superiority – that enables them to make certain products at a lower cost than other countries. Comparative advantage allows each country to profit by trading goods it produces most efficiently for goods other countries make more efficiently. In this way, trade boosts a country’s standart of living.

Free trade, or trade without restrictions is rare in the world marketplace. Most countries adopt protectionist measures such as tariffs and quotas to encourage consumers to buy domestic goods. A tariff is a tax on imports that increases the price of foreign – made products. Quotas limit the amount of specific products that can be imported. Ideally, trade barriers, which are measures enacted to protect jobs in newly formed or struggling industries are temporary.

Most economists agree that trade restrictions actually lead to higher prices for domestic products because domestic companies no longer need to keep prices low to compete with imports. If consumers have to spend more money than before, they have less to spend on other products. This ultimately reduces employment in other domestic industries.

Protectionist measures are risky because the economies of the world are interconnected. Unless nations agree to lower trade barriers, an escalating series of retaliatory tariffs and quotas – called a trade war – could result and plunge the global economy into a depression.

Text 5

The market and prices

The economists discuss the functions performed by the market in an economy with the introduction of money, or, more precisely, a medium of exchange.

Money makes possible distinctions between buyers and sellers. When a medium of exchange is in use, buyers are ordinarily those offering money for goods and sellers are those offering goods for money. The use of money also makes possible a distinction between supply and demand. Supply is goods and demand arises from the willingness to pay money for them. The distinction between supply and demand is very important in understanding how market establishes “going prices” and on what basis they are most likely to change. Indeed, economists register prices in units of money ordinarily.

Market, as ordinarily used by economists, is a generalized or abstract concept. Thus, economists say, “The market performs this or that function”, “The market is the prime institution in advancing social cooperation;” and the like. In such cases, they are referring to the nature and function of the market in general. Economists are well aware, of course, that particular markets exist in great variety and numbers, but they find it useful in discussion to discuss things common to market, and to refer to them as “the market”. “The market, “then, is a useful concept, which leaves out of account the peculiarities of any particular market.

The kinds and varieties of markets are at least as extensive as the kind and varieties of goods sold in the market. There are wholesale and retail markets, markets for raw materials and for finished goods, and markets for every sort of particular goods, for wheat, for cotton, for toys, for farm equipment, for books, for movies, for appliances, for stocks and bonds, for diamonds, for houses, for land, and so on and on almost infinitum. The following example demonstrates how varied markets may be.

The present writes has before him a book entitled “Writer’s Market for the year 2005”.

It contains listing of all sorts of markets for manuscripts, ranging from book publishers to women’s magazines, to film producers, to consumer publications, to trade, technical and professional journals. The payments for magazine articles range from $5.000 to several copies of the magazine anywhere two or more persons meet to engage in buying and selling is a market, whether it is on a sidewalk or in a multi-stories mall, a flea market or a huge department store.

The market is any place where trading takes place. It performs a central role in an exchange economy. One of these is a pivotal part in establishing prices.

Text 6

Health care in America

Millions of low – income, disabled, unemployed, and retired Americans do not receive adequate health care. Many cannot afford private medical insurance and do not qualify for government programs such as Medicare. Even people who have insurance frequently discover that they cannot afford to pay the deductible (the amount of money patients must pay before their insurance coverage begins), so they do without medical treatment. Without treatment their health often deteriorates. Many Americans believe that the government should ensure that everyone receives adequate health care. Others think that health care is a private responsibility. The debate over government – financed health care has been going on for many years.

Government – financed health care programs “Medicare” and “Medicaid” serve the most vulnerable segments of society – older, disabled, and low – income Americans.

The Medicare program consists of two parts. The first helps to pay for hospital nursing care. Each working person in the United States pays a special payroll tax to fund this hospital insurance. All retired recipients of Social Security, retired railroad workers, the disabled persons are entitled to Medicare coverage, although they must pay a deductible before Medicare will cover hospital expenses. Recipients may also have to make additional payments to their doctors or hospitals to help meet costs that Medicare does not pay. The second part of Medicare – supplemental medical insurance – covers 80 percent of doctor fees, laboratory tests and other medical expenses. Supplemental medical insurance is optional, and beneficiaries must pay a monthly premium to be eligible. Medicare does not pay for eyeglasses, dental work, or long – term nursing care.

Medicaid is a joint federal – state program to help people with low incomes pay for health care. Although the federal government funds half of Medicaid, each state establishes its own eligibility requirements based on income and administers its own program. Medicaid pays for hospital care, long – term nursing care, doctors’ fees, laboratory tests, and X rays. It also pays the fees and premiums for Medicare recipients who are near the poverty level. To keep their budgets in check, many states have cut Medicaid services, and some patients are discovering that Medicaid benefits do not cover all of their medical bills.

Text 7

The supreme court of U.S.

The legislative branch makes laws, the executive branch enforces those laws, and the judicial branch – with the Supreme Court as its ultimate authority – interprets laws and the Constitution. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president with the “advice and consent” of the Senate. The nine justices on the nation’s highest court serve for life, unless they resign or are removed from office through impeachment.

Decisions of the Supreme Court have often played a major role in shaping U.S. political and social life. During the 1960s, the Court made sweeping changes in individual rights, for example, struck down racial segregation and government – sponsored prayer in public schools and upheld the principle of “one person, one vote”.

Later the Supreme Court extended some decisions, for instance, approved busing to achieve racial integration of public schools, upheld affirmative action and ruled that women have the right to an abortion. However it also began to limit some of the decisions made earlier.

The Supreme Court underwent major changes during the Reagan and Bush administrations. The election of President Bill Clinton, the first Democratic president provided possibilities for philosophical shifts in the Supreme Court.

Supreme Court appointments are often controversial because of the power the Court wields. Liberals and conservatives generally have conflicting ideas about the philosophies they think a Supreme Court justice should hold. Conservatives, in general, want justices who favor strict interpretations of the Constitution, which they believe the framers intended. In contrast, liberals want justices who will allow for broader interpretations of the Constitution to suit changing circumstances.

Text 8

What is hypnosis?

Specific directions for applications of hypnosis techniques include cautions against problems encountered over years of clinical practice.

At a basic level, researchers are taking advantage of developments over the last decades in imaging the brain to gain a better understanding of the neurophysiological basis of hypnotic phenomena.

At the clinical level, the current open attitudes of society to problems that previously were brushed under the carpet, while solving some problems have sometimes raised as many new ones. There has been much heated controversy about repressed memories, but in the long term we gain from such controversies in wisdom as well as knowledge about the complexities of the human mind.

Like many psychological phenomena, intelligence, depression and anxiety, hypnosis is defined according to the subjective experience and report of participants and by the phenomena that accompany the ‘hypnotic state.’ The characteristics of this state include a redistribution of attention to an inward focus, a reduction of critical judgment and reality testing, a suspension of forward planning, increased suggestibility, heightened imagery or involvement in fantasy, and hypnotic role behavior. While there are many definitions of hypnosis, the most widely accepted is that proposed by the British Medical Association as a result of their investigation into the use of hypnosis in medicine.

Hypnosis is a temporary condition of altered perception in the subject which may be induced by another person and in which a variety of phenomena may appear spontaneously or in response to verbal or other stimuli. These phenomena include alterations in consciousness and memory, increased susceptibility to suggestion, and the production in the subject of responses and ideas unfamiliar to him in his normal state of mind. Further phenomena such as anesthesia, paralysis and the rigidity of muscles, and vasomotor changes can be produced and removed in the hypnotic state.

Phenomena of hypnosis

A variety of phenomena accompany the hypnotic state, which may be induced on the instruction of a therapist or self-induced by the subject. The extent that the phenomena are experienced and observed depends upon the depth of the hypnotic state, which is characteristic of the subject and commonly referred to as hypnotizability or hypnotic susceptibility.

During the hypnotic process the focus of attention is narrowed and shifted towards an internal cognitive focus. This leads to a reduction in awareness of the sensory input requiring a response. There is a relative reduction in arousal of sensory and response systems of the central nervous system, in contrast to the mobile shifting of attention which occurs as the anxious patient scans the environment for potential of imagined danger or threat.

110