On the state of learning in england

(From King Alfred’s Preface to the West-Saxon

Version of Gregory’s “Pastoral Care”)

Ælfred kyninZ hāteð Zrētan Wærferð(2) biscep his wordum luflīce and ðē cyðan hāte(3), ðæt mē cōm swīðe oft on Zemynd(4), hwelce wiotan(5) iū(6) wæron Ziond AnZelcynn, æZðer Ze Zodcundra hāda Ze(7) woruldcundra, ond hū ZesæliZlīca tīda ðā wæron Ziond AnZelcynn; ond hū ðā kyninZas, ðe ðone onwald hæfdon ðæs folces on ðām daZum(8), Zode ond his ærenedwrecum hīersumedon; ond hū hīē æZðer Ze hiora sibbe Ze hiora siodo Ze(7) hiora onweald innanbordes Zehīōldon, ond ēāc ūt hiora ēðel Zerymdon; ond hū him ðā spēōw æZðer Ze mid wīZe mid wīsdōme(9); ond ēāc ðā Zodcundan hādas hū Ziorne hīē wæron æZðer Ze ymb lāre Ze(7) ymb liornunZa, Ze ymb ealle ðā ðīōwotdōmas, ðe hīē Zode dōn scoldon; ond hū man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ond lāre hieder on lond sōhte(10), ond hū wē hīē nū sceoldon ūte beZietan, Zif wē hīē habban sceoldon(11). Swæ clæne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on AnZelcynne(12) ðæt swiðe fēāwa wæron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðeninZa cūðen understondan on enZlisc, oððe furðum ān ærendZewrit of lædene on enZlisc āreccean(13), ond ic wēne, ðætte nōht moniZe beZiondan Humbre næren. Swæ fēāwa hiora wæron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne ne mæZ Zeðencean be sūðan Temese, ðā ðā(15) ic tō rīce fēnZ. Gode ælmihteZum sīē ðonc ðæte wē nū æniZne onstāl habbað lārēōwa. Ond for ðon ic ðē bebīōde ðæt ðū dō(14) swæ ic Zelīēfe ðæt ðū wille, ðæt ðū ðē ðissa woruldðinZa tō ðæm ZeæmetiZe(14), swæ ðū oftost mæZe(14), ðæt ðū ðone wīsdōm, ðe ðē Zod sealde ðær ðær(16) ðū hiene befæstan mæZe(14), befæste(14). Zeðenc, hwelc witu ūs ðā becōmon for ðisse worulde(17), ðā ðā wē hit nōhwæðer ne selfe ne lufodon, ne eac ōðrum monnum ne lēfdon: ðone naman ānne wē lufodon, ðætte wē crīstne wæren, ond swīðe fēāwe ðā ðēāwas.(18)

Ðā ic ðā ðis eall Zemunde, ðā Zmunde ic ēāc hū ic Zeseah, ær ðæm ðe(19) hit eall forherZod wære(14) ond forbærned, hū ðā ciricean Ziond eall AnZelcynn stōdon māðma ond bōca Zefylda ond ēāc micel meniZeð Zodes ðīōwa, ond ðā swiðe lytle fiorme ðāra bōca wiston, for ðæm ðe(20) hīē hiora nānwuht onZiotan ne meahton, for ðæm ðe(20) hīē næron on hiora āZen Zeðīōde āwritene. Swelce hīē cwæden: “Ūre ieldran, ðā ðē(21) ðās stōwa ær hīōldon, hīē(22) lufodon wīsdōm, ond ðurh ðone hīē beZēāton welan, ond ūs læfdon. Hēr mon mæZ Zīēt Zesīōn hiora swæð(23), ac wē him ne cunnon æfterspyriZean, ond forðæm wē habbað nū æZðer forlæten Ze ðone welan Ze ðone welan Ze ðone wīsdōm, for ðæm ðe wē noldon tō ðæm spore mid ūre mōde onlūtan”.

Ðā ic ðā ðis eall Zemunde, ðā wundrade ic swīðe swīðe ðāra Zōdenna wiotena, ðē Ziu wæron Ziond AnZelcynn, ond ðā bēc eallæ befullan Zeliornod hæfdon, ðæt hīē hiora ðā nānne dæl noldon on hiora āZen Zeðīōde wendan(24). Ac ic ðā sōna eft mē selfum andwyrde ond cwæð: “Hīē ne wēndon ðætte æfre menn sceolden swæ reccelēāse weorðan ond sīō lār swæ oðfeallan; for ðære wilnunZa hīē hit forlēton(25), ond woldon ðæt her ðy māra wīsdōm on londe wære ðy wē mā Zeðēōda cūðon”. Ðā Zemunde ic hū sīō æ wæs ærest on Ebrēīsc Zeðīōde funden, ond eft, ðā hīē Crēācas Zeliornodon, ðā wendon hīē hīē on hiora āZen Zeðīōde ealle(26), ond ēāc ealle ōðre bēc, ond eft Lædenware swæ same, siððan hīē hīē Zeliornodon(27), hīē hīē wendon ealla ðurh wīse wealhstōdas on hiora āZen Zeðīōde. Ond ēāc ealla ōðræ cristnæ ðīōda sumne dæl hiora on hiora āZen Zeðiode wendon. Forðy mē ðyncð betre, Zif īow swæ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēāc sumæ bēc, ðā ðe niedbeðearfosta sīēn eallum monnum tō wiotonne, ðæt Zeðīōde wenden ðe wē ealle Zecnāwan mæZen(14), (ond Zedōn swæ wē swiðe ēāðe maZon mid Zodes fultume, Zif wē ðā stilnesse habbað), ðætte eal sīō ZioZuð ðe nū is on AnZelcynne frīōra monna, ðāra ðe spēda hæbben, ðæt hīē ðæm befēōlan mæZen(14), sīēn tō liornunZa oðfæste, ðā hwīle ðe hīē tō nānre ōðerre note ne mæZen(28), oð ðone first ðe hīē wēl cunnen enZlisc Zewrit ārædan: lære mon siððan furður on lædenZeðīōde, ðā ðe mon furðor læran wille ond tō hīēran hāde dōn wille(29). Ðā ic ðā Zemunde, hū sīō lār læden Zeðīōdes ær ðissum(30) āfeallen wæs(31) Ziond AnZelcynn, ond ðēāh moniZe cūðon enZlisc Zewrit ārædan, ðā onZan ic onZemanZ ōðrum mislīcum ond maniZfealdum bisZum ðisses kynerīces ðā bōc wendan on enZlisc, ðe is Zenemned on læden Pastoralis, ond on enZlisc Hierdebōc, hwīlum word be worde, hwīlum andZit of andZiete, swæ swæ ic hīē Zeliornode(32) æt PleZmunde, mīnum ærcebiscepe ond æt Assere, mīnum biscepe ond æt Grīmbolde mīnum mæsseprīōste ond æt Iōhanne mīnum mæsseprēōste. Siððan ic hīē ðā Zeliornod hæfde swæ swæ ic hīē forstōd, ond swæ ic hīē andZitfullīcost āreccean meahte, ic on enZlisc āwende (33); ond tō ælcum biscepstole on mīnum rīce wille āne onsendan; ond on ælcre bið ān æstel(34), sē bið on fīfteZum mancessa(35). Ond ic bebīōde(36) on Zodes naman ðæt nān mon ðone æstel from ðære bēc ne dō, nē ðā bōc from ðæm mynstre(37): uncūð hū lonZe ðær swæ Zelærede biscepas sīēn(14), swæ swæ nū, Zode ðonc, wēlhwær siendon(38); forðy ic wolde ðætte hīē ealneZ æt ðære stōwe wæren(14), būton sē biscep hīē mid him habban wille oððe hīō hwær tō læne sīē, oððe hwā ōðre bī wrīte.(39)

NOTES

1. One of the four doctors of the Latin Church and Pope from 590-604, Gregory the Great was of particular interest to the English Church as the originator of the Augustinian mission. For centuries the “Cura Pastoralis” (the “Pastoral Care”) was considered a standard manual for clerics, and therefore it took the first place in the programme of translations undertaken by Alfred during the later part of his reign (871-899) to counteract the cultural decline he describes in his preface. It was intended that a copy should be presented to each diocese in his kingdom. Alfred’s preface takes the form of a letter addressed to each bishop.

2. Wærferð (biscop æt WioZoraceastre) – Уэрферд (епископ Вустерский). The name of the bishop varied in the copies sent to the different dioceses.

3. Ælfred kyninZ hāteð Zrētan Wærferð biscep his wordum luflīce ond frēōndlīce ond ðē cyðan hāte – In the first line of the text Alfred speaks about himself using the 3^rd person subject which is in accordance with a Roman tradition of formal and informal greetings; in the second line of the text a change to the 1^st person is observed: ond ðē cyðan hāte (= и тебе возвестить велю).

4. … mē com swīðe oft on Zemynd (=мне приходило очень часто на ум) is an instance of the impersonal sentence, a pattern that with certain verbs apparently lacked a subject. The construction has entirely disappeared in Modern English.

5. wiota > wita is an instance of a back umlaut.

6. iu see Zeo (Zio, Ziu)

7. æZðer Ze … Ze is a disjunctive coordinator.

8. …ðā kyninZas, ðe ðone onwald hæfdon ðæs folces on ðām daZum = the kings who had rule over the people in those days.

9. ond hū him ðā spēōw æZðer Ze mid wīZe Ze mid wīsdōme = and how they prospered both in warfare and wisdom. See also Note4.

10. ond hū man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ond lāre hieder on lond sohte = and how men from abroad came here to this land in search of knowledge. See also Note 23.

11. ond hū wē hīē nū sceoldon ūte beZietan, Zif wē hīē habban sceoldon = and how we should now have to get them, if we were to have them.

12. Swæ clæne hīō wæs oðfeallenu on AnZelcynne = So complete was its decay (i.e. the decay of learning) among the English people.

13. ðone furðum ān ærendZewrit of lædene on enZlisc āreccean = or even translate a letter from Latin into English.

14. “næren (= ne + wæren)” is the past plural subjunctive of “wesan”; “sīē” is the present singular subjunctive of “bēōn”;

“dō” is the present singular subjunctive of “dōn”;

“wæren” is the past plural subjunctive of “wesan”;

“ZeæmetiZe” is the present singular subjunctive of “(Ze)æmetiZian”;

“sceolden” is the past plural subjunctive of “sculan”;

“wære” is the past singular subjunctive of “wesan”;

“sīēn” is the present plural subjunctive of “ bēōn”;

“mæZen” is the present plural subjunctive of “maZan”;

“lære” is the present singular subjunctive of “læran”.

15. ðā ðā = when

16. ðær ðær = wherever

17. Zeðenc, hwelc witu ūs ðā becōmon for worulde = Think what punishments then came upon us in this world.

18. In “… ond swīðe fēāwa ðā ðēōwas” the verb “lufodon” is ellipted.

19. ær ðæm ðe = before (прежде чем)

20. for ðæm ðe = because

21. ðā ðe = who. The relative particle “ðe” is often preceded by a demonstrative.

22. “Ūre ieldran… hīē” is an instance of syntactic tautology (repetition of the subject in the form of a pronoun), frequently occurring in Old English texts.

23. In “Hēr mon mæZ Ziet Zesīōn hiora swæð” (= One can see their footprints here still) the weakened unstressed form “mon” can be treated as an indefinite-personal pronoun.

24. ðæt hīē hiora ðā nānne dæl noldon on hiora āZen Zeðiode wendan = that they did not wish to translate any part of them into their own language. “Wendan” w.v.1 – to turn, move, change, go; translate; ME wenden – to go, turn, change one’s course; MnE went; to wend one’s way || Gth wandjan || OHG wenten || ON venda

25. for ðære wilnunga hīē hit forlēton = they refrained from it by intention.

26. ond eft, ðā hīē Crēācas Zeliornodon, ðā wendon hīē hīē on hiora āZen Zeoīōde ealle = and afterwards, when the Greeks learnt it, they translated it (the law) into their own language. “Zeliornodon” see “leornian”. For “wendan” see Note 24.

27. ond eft Lædenware swæ same, siððan hīē hīē Zeliordon = and afterwards in the same way the Romans, when they had learned them. “Zeliornodon” see “leornian”.

28. For ðy mē ðyncð betre, Zif īōw swæ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēāc suma bēc… ðā hwīle ðe hīē tō nānre ōðerre note ne mæZen = Therefore it seems better to me, if it seems so to you, that we also should translate certain books… so that all the youth of free men now among the English people, who have the means to be able to devote themselves to it, may be set to study for as long as they are of no other use (i.e. cannot be set to any other employment).

29. lære mon siððan furður on lædenZeðīōde, ðā ðe mon furðor læran wille ond tō hīēran hāde dōn wille = afterwards one may teach further in the Latin language those whom one wishes to teach further and wishes to promote to holy orders. See also Note 23.

30. ær ðissum = previously (раньше этого)

31. āfeallen wæs = had fallen into decay

32. Zeliornode see leornian

33. Siððan ic hīē andZitfullicost āreccean meahte, ic hīē on enZlisc āwende = When I had learned it (the book), I translated it into English as I understood it and as I could interpret it most intelligibly.

34. æstel: an æstel may have been some kind of a book-mark, mounted presumably on stripes of leather; a sort of an ex-libris.

35. mancessa: money-piece worth one eighth of a pound

36. bebīōde see (be)bēōdan

37. ðætte nān mon ðone æstel from ðære bēc ne dō, nē ðā bōc from ðæm mynstre = that no one remove the book-marker from the book, nor the book from the minster. “Dō” is the present subjunctive singular of “dōn”.

38. siendon = sindon (the present indicative plural of “bēōn”).

39. būton sē hīē mid him habban wille oððe hīō hwær tō læne sīē, oððe hwā ōðre bī wrīte = unless the bishop want to have it with him, or it be anywhere on loan, or anyone make copies of it. “Wille”, “sīē”, “wrīte” are present subjunctive singular forms of the verbs “willan”, “bēōn”, “wrītan”, respectively. “Bī” (= “be”) is used here without an object (= “from it”); hence the sense is “make copies of it”.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS

1. In the first two paragraphs of the text analyse the singular nouns and try to categorize as many as you can by both gender and case.

2. In the first two paragraphs of the text analyse the plural noun instances. Pay special attention to homonymy of the forms.

3. Which of the recorded forms are the probable ancestors of those which are used today? Describe the process by which they have come down to us.

4. Analyse all the elements that appear in the determiner position in the noun phrases in the third paragraph of the text. Which of them have survived into Modern English, and which have dropped out of use?

5. Trace the development of the Instrumental case of the demonstrative in the correlative clauses “… hēr ðy māra wīsdōm on londe wære ðy wē mā Zeðēōda cūðon”.

6. Make a chart of personal pronouns which occur in the third paragraph of the text. Study their forms, noting which ones have come down to us in very much the same form. What has happened to the Accusative and Dative case forms, with respect to the subsequent history of the pronoun?

7. Classify the adjectives in the first paragraph of the text according to their gender, case and number, into the two declensions. Even though your inventory is incomplete, what do you notice about a good many of the inflectional endings? How does this help to explain the eventual disappearance of these forms?

8. What means did the Old English adjective and adverb have for comparison? What examples do you find of this in the last paragraph of the text?

9. Identify the verbs according to two categories, “strong” and “weak”. Further, for the strong verbs, classify the form as to whether it is an infinitive stem (including all present stems), 1^st or 3^rd person singular past, plural past, or past participle (This is the commonest means of showing vowel gradation).

10. Which of the strong verbs in the text have remained “strong” and which have become “weak”?

11. Analyse each verb, this time to classify it according to person and number. Are there any differences between the present and past personal endings? Which endings carried over into Middle English?

12. Note the subjunctives and classify them separately. Which forms seem to be the ancestors of the like-functioning in Modern English forms, and which have since disappeared?

13. Set out all the forms of “bēōn” which occur in the text in paradigmatic form and place their Modern English equivalent forms next to them. What has been the development of “be”?

14. Note every instance of sentence negation and compare each with its Modern English construction. What differences do you observe?

15. Compare the construction observed in Note 23 and 29 with its Modern German counterpart. What is the Modern English practice for forming indefinite-personal sentences? (Translate all the indefinite-personal sentences in the text into Modern English).

16. How are relative patterns constructed in Old English? Do you find any occurrence here of the practice in Modern English of omitting the relative marker?

17. What do you observe about the grammatical property of the underlined correlatives: “Swæ clæne hīō wæs oðfeallenu on AnZelcynne ðæt swīðe fēāwa wæron behiondan Humbre ðe hiora ðeninZa cūðen understondan on enZlisc…”; “Đa ic ðā ðis eall Zemunde, ðā wundrade ic swīðe swīðe ðāra Zōdena wiotona, ðe Ziu wæron Ziond AnZelcynn…”; “… ond woldon ðæt hēr ðy māra wīsdōm on londe wære ðy wē mā Zeðēōda cūðon”?

18. Make a list of all verbal negations. Note the forms “næren”, “næron”, “noldon”. What operation has taken place here?

19. Compare the following word pairs in our text with one another, then identify the phonetic process which brought about the derivatives: lāre (n.) ← lære (v.); naman (n.) ← Zenemned (v.); befullan (adv.) ← Zefylda (v.); ānne (num.) ← æniZne (indef.pr.); AnZelcynn (n.) ← EnZlisc (adj.)