теор.фонетика

?1-1 place of stress in dif lang. Tendences in English.There are two main types of word stress- fixed and variable.languages of the fixed stress type have stresse predominantly on a given location in a word.Languages with variable stress enjoy more freedom for stress placement. A case when a stress falls obligatory on the final sylable is Tatar.French is another language where word stress is normally fixed on on the last Syllable.Other examples of fixed stress are Finnish and Chech,both with initial syllable stress.It is found that there is a relatively strong tendency for languages to prefer final or penultimate syllables for location of fixed lexical stress.A relatively small proportion of the languages of the world allow range of different locations of stress:Dutch ,english ,russian,greek,italian.Typologically,English has hybrid-stress system:on the level of the word,stress rules are in many ways similar to those of Romance languages in that the pattern of stress is basically determined with the reference to the right edge of the word.

1-2. Formal/informal communications(aims/phonetic means).

The speaker’s judgement of formality will depend on a number of factors, such as the relative status of the person he’s talking to which results in their different social roles, the topic they are discussing, to what purpose and in what setting. In a very formal situation the speaker tends to articulate more slowly&carefully. Ina very informal speech he will be likely to speak more quickly,some sounds may be omitted.(are – [a:] in careful speech,[ ∂] in casual speech – vowel reduction). Variation conditioned in this way is stylistic. It’s a matter of what’s appropriate for the situation. Speaker’s personality also determines the style of pronunciation. When talking formally to seniors one is expected to be polite. A foreigner may be insensitive to a situation in another culture. Labov was the 1^st to quantify and measure stylistic variation in 4 models of speech:1)reading a word list2)reading a text3)interview4) casual speech. Standard forms tend to be used in formal styles of speech, non-standard – in the informal casual speech. One should always know why he communicates. Intonation is important. Certain of its patterns bring about the message.

2-2 ?Syllable structure.There is an overall tendency towards open syllables.No known language has only closed syllables.CV structure with a single onset consonant followed by a vowel is the most basic for human language.1) CV type syllable appear to be the syllable types that human children first uuter 2) in many cases of aphasia where post-stroke patients have suffered damage to their speech,CV syllables also appear to be first pronounce.3) languages which have both onset and coda consonants typically allow of a wider range of consonants to occur in onset positionthan coda position.(russian)4)coda consonants are much likely to undergo loss of articulation in the course of the historical development of language than onset consonants.this is what happened with [r] in cods position in many accents of english.

The next common tendency is sequences of segments are syllabified ia accordance with a sonority scale.applied to syllable structure the idea is that most sonorous element will be located within the nucleus,and that the further one gets from the nucleus,the less sonorous are the segments.another universal principle of syllabification concerns the sylabification of polysyllabic words,and is refered to as the principle of Maximal onset: more consonants are clustered at the onset position than in coda. English and Russian have almost an equal number of syllable models 23 vs 21.

But the basic difference consists in the dominance of an open syllable in Russian(CV) , and closed syllable in English (CVC) in actual speech. There is a close contact in the russian syllable between the onset consonants and the following vowels(CV) which affects the quality of vowels.In English there is a close contact between the vowel and the coda consonants(VC) which affects the lenght of vowels

3.1Rhythm in General - periodicity in time and space. We find it everywhere (days & nights, seasons, human activities)

Connected with the process of breathing.

Speech rhythm can be regarded as language universal, since speech in any language or speech in general is supposed to be rhythmical. Acc to the most general definition of rhythm there must be a similar unit in speech, which occurs regularly, at equal periods

There are two major types of languages: 1) syllable-timed languages (stressed or unstressed syllables comes at equal intervals) |French, spanish, Italian, Hungarian, hindi| 2)stress-timed languages (only stressed syllables come at equal intervals) |Russian, German, English, Arbic, Modern Greek|

Speech rhythm - a regular reccurance (repetition) of stressed syllables/

Many linguists suppose that there must be a basic rhythmic unit (BRU) for all types of speech activity, and the BRU for stress timed languages is a rhythmic group.

Rhythmic group - segment which contains a stressed syllable & an unstressed syllable attached to it. There are 2 viewpoints on the character of unstressed syllable attachment: semantic & enclitic (есть подробно в билете 12-2)

Антипова - was the first to study rhythm in larger Text units

Rhythm (from Antipova’s point of view) - periodicity of similar and commensurable units

If we look at the traditional definition of rhythm we’ll see that that rhythm acc to it depends on duration only so rhythm may be regarded as a complex prosodic phenomenon, at the same time the rhythm structure of a text appears to be closely connected with its semantic structure, since various semantic text units can be formed as rhythmic units if they’re similar & commensurable.

3.2In phonology the main basis method of establishing the phonetic status of a sound is the method of finding minimal pairs = finding at least 1 pair of words which are different in respect of that sound: pit – bit. If the 2 words are identical except for 1 sound which makes a contrast in meaning = MINIMAL PAIR (words pin-bin; or grammatical forms man-men, stick-sticks)

The method is applied to Eng consonants by substituting1 sound for the other. Thus we get 16 consonants in the initial position (wıt, bıt, pıt, fıt, nıt, lıt, tıt, dıt, zıt, sıt, t∫ıt, rıt, ∫ıt, kıt, gıt,hıt) + (fın, Ѳın, dзın) (dзet, vet, jet, met) (saı, Ѳaı, ðaı) ; The medial and the final positions can offer consonants which are not to be found word-initially: (leð∂, leз∂) (sın, sıŋ). Result – 24 phonemes, 6 of which are of restricted occurrence: /h,w,j,r/ - used only initially; /з, ŋ/ - medial or final positions.

Sounds are grouped into classes acc to the features which are distinctive (relevant, phonemic) for the particular language. In English the following features are distinctive for consonants:

1. Place of articulation: labial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal

2. Types of obstruction and manner of the production of noise: plosive oral stop, fricative, affricative, approximant

3. Presence or absence of voice: voiced (lenis), voiceless (fortis)

4. Position of the soft palate and the velum

In each minimum pair the opposition is based either on

• 1 distinctive feature – SINGLE OPPOSITION /pıt (fortis) – bıt (lenis)/

• 2 features – DOUBLE OPPOSITION /tıl (voiceless, alveolar) –bıl (voiced, labial)/

• More than 2 – MULTIPLE /fıl (fotis, labio-dental, fricative) – bıl (lenis, labial, oral stop)/

4.1Major approaches to the form of melodic units

1. Contour Approach (British school – O’Connor, H. Sweet, D. Jones, H. Parma etc.)

It’s based on the assumption that the melodic form of an utterance is a complex unity of functionally independent components. The melodic contour is studied within a sense group which is the smallest unit of sense in speech. In terms of its structure & functions the contour includes a nuclear tone (a tone used within the nucleus of the utterance -> highlighted part carrying maximum informational load), a scale (part of the utterance starting with the initial stressed syllable & going as far as the last unstressed syllable before the tone), a head (the first stressed syllable in the scale) & a prehead( includes the initial unstressed or weakly stressed syllables before the head)

Besides melodic contours melody comprises:

RANGE (mb narrow &wide) – which is an overall width of pitch change or the interval between the highest and the lowest pitches in a sense group.

REGISTER (mb low, mid & high) – which is the height of pitch range.

Conclusion: acc to British scientific tradition the melodic form of a sense group is a contour possessing both horizontal & vertical components each of which performs its specific function

2. Pitch Level Approach (American school)

The melodic structure of a sense group is analyzed in term of pitch levels that is not related to any particular fundamental frequency band. Pitch levels are distinctively relevant & called pitch phonemes.

Americans distinguish 4 pitch levels:

1. Mid pitch (pitch 2) – quiet, unemotional pitch of human voice

2. Low (pitch 1)

3. High (pitch 3)

4. Extra high (pitch 4) – strong emotions

Any utterance must contain pitch 1, 2, 3. Inside each pitch band there can be slight ups & downs which are considered semantically irrelevant

4.2

English Articulatory Basis	Russian Articulatory Basis
Lips spread and pressed tightly against the teeth	Lips – slightly rounded & with some speakers – protruded & not pressed against the teeth
The tip of the tongue is always drawn back from the teeth & it’s held opposite the alveoli (but doesn’t touch them) + the tip of the tongue is slightly curled back	2) the tip of the tongue is put forward & touches the teeth
The front (middle part) & back parts of the tongue – flattened & lowered	3) The front (middle part) & back parts of the tongue – flattened
The soft pallid is raised as when yawning. + lowered position of the back part of the tongue
RESULT: English articulation Setting accounts for more resonant and sonorous sounds – the specific English timber

Differences are obvious and Russian learners of English must be aware that they’ll have to put their organs in a position not used for them. In case we fail to do that our foreign speech will have an accent

5.1People communicate by units larger than a phrase. In connection with this TEXT LINGUISTICS was created.

The smallest unit of the text – Supraphrasal unit (Балаховский) (SPU)

(SPU = Поспелов, Пешковский – complex syntactic whole; Кондинский – a phonological paragraph; Harris – discourse)

Each SPU is organized around a certain theme (a micro topic, a larger topic)

как я поняла (???) – an SPU is indivisible. There are larger parts of text, for example – chapters, they’re independent from the point of view of meaning, but chapters may be divided, and their parts can be divided until they become indivisible SPUs.

Text generation pattern:

1. The motive (reason) why the author writes this or that text

2. General idea

3. The communicative intention

some linguists add:

4. Result of communication – the sum of communicative intentions & prevalence of aims

Intonation also plays a very important role in communication

Intonation features: 1)loudness 2)melody 3)range 4)tempo 5)pauses 6)timbre

e.g. a new topic is introduced:

1. Loud

2 и 3. Wide range

4. rather slow

5. long pauses

6. change

5-2 Degrees of word stress.According to Gimson threre are four degrees of prominence in English.1) primary accent-marked by the last major pitch change in a word (or longer utterance)2) secondary accent marked by non-final pitch change in a word.3) a minor prominence produced by the occurrence of a full vowel but containing no pitch change.4) a non-prominent syllable containing no pitch change and one of the vowels/,,I/.We can easily correlate the above classification with primary,secondary,tertiary and weak stress.However this point of view of the Brtitish linguists is not shared by all linguists.The word ,indi,visi’bility ilustrates different degrees of syllable prominence with an identical vowel [I] .phonologically there are three degrees: primary stress on bi,secondary str in,vi- and the rest of the syllables are termed as having a weak stress(unstressed).tertiary stress is as weak as secondary stress but has a diff distribution ;) it follows the primary stress while secondary precedes it. Ladefoged, the leading amerric.phonetitian,regards stress as somethig that either occur or does not on a syllable in English and view vowel reduction and intonation as separate processes. ,multipli’cation-the forth syllable seems to have a higher degree of stress.the same is true of other long words such as magnification.but higher degree of stress of the later syllable only occers when it is said in isolation or at the end of a phrase.Syllables in an utterance vary in their degrees of prominence, but this variation are not all associated with what we want to call stress. A syllable may be especially prominent because it accopmpanies a peak in the intonation(they have tonic(nuclear)stress).so english syllables can be stressed(may or may not be the tonic stress syllables that carry tha major pitch change in the tone group) unstressed(may or may not have a reduced vowel)

6-1 Syllable division.dif.aproaches.according to Russian scholars research datamost Eng syllables areclosed when there is a fortis consonant in the coda (Злотоустова) and this taked us to a problem of SD.SD is a controversial point.Two authoritative sourcesLPD(Longman pronunciation dictionary) and EPD(Cambridge pronunciation dictionary) dictionaries agree that : compounds should be divided into syllables according to the morphological principle(hard-ware) and that a single consonant which appears between two syllables after a short stressed vowel should be attached to the preceding vowel (better[‘bet-], but follow different principles in attaching a single consonant which follows along vowl or diphtong either to the first syllable or to the second one.(EPD la.dy/LPD lad.y)experemental evidence shows that following a long vowel a consonant was syllabified with the following syllable which supports EPD.as for universialprinciple of Maximal Onset whichdid not seem to workin case of a single consonant after a stressed short vowel DID WORK- the retention stage of a consonant belongs to the previous short vowel while the release is with the next syllable. In fact the boundary between two syllables runs within the medial consonant:city [‘si-ti].

6-2. National diff in mimics, gestures, proximics. Gestures- kinesics, convey verbal message.There are diff planes in which gestures- frontal/saggital. British/American – frontal, especially forbidding gestures. Different dimensions(metrical) in R – broadly- the centre is shoulders, he amplitude is very wide; in England – the active part is the arm from the elbow, radius is smaller. One and the same gesture in diff cultures means diff things(OK in America, money in Japan, sexual gesture in Latin Amer).proximics – distance in communications of people:personal space- 3 main distances in communication:1)intimate space – 50cm/17inches – friends&relatives.2)social – over 50 cm-1,5m-collegues.3)public distance- over 1,5 m t0 3,5 and even more)- president lecturer. Touching behavior- part of life in Latin America/arab countries,in Russia too.The interconnection bet ween gestures&intonation bec muscles work synchronically:rise- tense,fall-relaxed. 5 basic emotions when we communicate. Mimics – british people too reserved to use them actively, in Russia, Americas – they are used.

7-1 Syllable function:open and closed Syllable is a minimal grouping of vowels and consonants necessary for articlation(phonetic unit) and for sorting strings of phonemes in the mental representation( phonnological unit).Syllable can be defined as a complex unit made up of nuclear and marginal elements,with vowwels acting as nuclear,syllabic elements and consonants as marginal or non-syllabic.Syllable can open and closed.When a syllable eds in a vowel,with no final consonant itis open be[bi:]syllable of CV(consonant+vowel)structure.When syllable is terminated by consonant it is closed it[it]VCstr.We can also distinguish covered (CV) from uncovered(V or VC) syllables(whether they have consonant in tne onset.If there is along vowel or diphtong or more than one consonant in rhyme(nucleus +coda)the syllable is called long or heavy.Heavy syll. Attract stress in ENGLISH.Syll with just a short vowl without a consonant-light and are normally unstressed.(the basic diff between Rus &Eng consits in the dominance of an open syllable in Russian(CV) , and closed syllable in English (CVC))

7-2. Prosody(English-Russian specifics). Prosody/prosodic feature a term used in suprasegmental phonetics and phonologyto refer collectively to variations in pitch, loudness, tempo and rhythm+voice quality. When comparing intonation systems of diff langs- the method of finding systemic differences(pitch patterns)/ Intonation of conversational E:1)nuclear tone termination2)pitch level of the head(low head/high head)3)pitch level&interval of nuclear tones(low fall/low-rise;high fall/high rise),4)nuclear tone configuration(simple tones, complex tones- rise-fall,fallrise;compound tones fall+rise).Russian intonation(7 pitch patterns):1)relative pitch levels(precentre, centre, post-centre)2)pitch configuration(rising,falling,falling-rising,rising+falling)3)intensified word accent.4)voice quality(glottal stop)presence. Comparing the 2 systems we can see similarities/dissimilarities in pitch configurations, the structure of basic patterns etc. And there are diff in use. Common features of pitch and other prosodic features( word accent R – уже-уже E import-to import; focus R – И он уехал-И он уехал E- and he left-and he left.

8-1 Syllable types.?mistakes in english acc to Russ art basics.Syllable is a minimal grouping of vowels and consonants necessary for articlation(phonetic unit) and for sorting strings of phonemes in the mental representation( phonnological unit). Syllable can open and closed.When a syllable eds in a vowel,with no final consonant itis open be[bi:]syllable of CV(consonant+vowel)structure.When syllable is terminated by consonant it is closed it[it]VCstr.We can also distinguish covered (CV) from uncovered(V or VC) syllables.

. English and Russian have almost an equal number of syllable models 23 vs 21.the maximum number of consonants that can make up an Eng onset is three(the first can only be s) like splayed,strayed skewed.

There is an overall tendency towards open syllables.No known language has only closed syllables.CV structure with a single onset consonant followed by a vowel is the most basic for human language. CV type syllable appear to be the syllable types that human children first utter.

Possible mistakes in Eng according to russian articulatory basis:1) palatalization 2)

8.2Rhythm is understood as regularity or periodicity of similar events. It is very important for style differentiation as well as the prosodic arrangement of the text.

VERSE:

Rhythm was first described in poetics. The laws of versification included such means of rhythmic arrangement as meter (iamb, chorea etc.), rhyme, including inner rhyme (within a line), caesurae, lines, stanzas, lexical repetition, syntactical parallelism, assonance (repetition of similar vowels), alliteration (repetition of similar consonants). In a classic poem – 15 rhythm-creating features; free verse – number dropped to 3

The basic rhythm units of verse are:

Foot – a stressed syllable with the unstressed syllable (called clitics) that either precede it (PROclitics) or follow it (ENclitics)

Line – a graphic representation of one or 2 intonation groups, normally with an equal number of feet in them,

Stanza – part of the poem with a fixed number of lines, in a classical verse with a patterned order of rhymes between lines

When a piece of verse is read aloud, there are other prosodic features which accompany the basic rhythmic units and enhance the rhythmic effect. They are combinations of prosodic features which mark the beginning and end of feet, lines and stanzas as well as their recurring melodic and dynamic patterns and voice quality features. The beginning of each unit is brought out by maximal pitch and intensity values, while the end is accompanied by a relative drop of pitch and intensity, which is especially noticeable at the end of the line. Besides, a line normally finishes with slowing down of tempo and a pause; in case it coincides with the end of stanza, the pause is longer. The pitch patterns are noted for declination and leveled out falling tones, loudness is diminished, voice quality is husky.

There are 3 major generalizations we can make about rhythmic units:

1. rhythmic units constitute a hierarchy: each bigger unit consists of a number of smaller units (foot, stanza, line)

2. in reading aloud all the prosodic features (pitch, intensity, tempo, pause and voice quality) take part: they indicate the boundaries and pattern the basic units of rhythm;

3. a few prosodic features of reading verse are style-specific, for example leveled out tones, diminished loudness, husky voice quality

PROSE:

Basic units of rhythm in prose read aloud:

Rhythmic group (stress-group, accent group, foot)

Intonation group (tone unit, syntagma)

Supraphrasal Unit (paragraph, theme unit, topic)

• The hierarchy principle and the prosody rhythm-forming function are both valid for prose, verse & even spontaneous talk.

Apart from basic units of rhythm there are other units. E.g. it was fond that a long sentence in prose which consists of a number of intonation group and practically functions as a Supraphrasal unity falls into smaller periods uniting intonation groups by 2 or 3. These shorter periods are marked off by an overall rise and drop of pitch and by a pause longer than a pause between intonation groups. Each small period presents a syntactical and a semantical unity, just as the rhythmic elements do. Thus units of rhythm are actually units of meaning.

Prosody with its constant rise and drop of pitch and intensity, with falling tones indicating finality and with pauses of varying length helps us to understand the text. Prosody creates rhythmic groups by uniting them, on the 1 hand and by separating them one from the others, on the other.

• We can call the functions of rhythm STRUCTURING, COHESIVE, DELIMITING. (+AESTHETIC because rhythm appeals to our sense of harmony)

9-1.Geographical and social differences in English accents. In geographical variation we have to distinguish 2 basic concepts:1)dialect is distinguished for its vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.So GA and RP may be treated as dialects.2)accent is a type of pronunciation or a feature of one which can be found in the speech of any individual or the whole speech community. We may speak of American accent in English, as French accent etc.Accents of English worldwide are grouped into: accents in countries where English is the mother tongue(inner circle), countries where E is one of the official langs(outer circle); countries where E is the most widely used foreign lang(expanding circle). Historical-geographical division may be based on the division into British-oriented and North –america oriented. Most of the countries posess their national pronunciation standards, regional standards and local accents. National standards – GA/RP- rhotic/non-rhotic/General Canadian/General Australian.Regional standards – Southern, Northern,Scottish and Northern Irish in the UK and Northern, Northern Midland, Southern, western in the US.E.G. the southern accent in the USA is non-rhotic in western –cot/caught - merger.+ Regional standards in the UK – Estuary Engl(between Cockney&RP)+ Local accents- local & rural(south wales)Social variation- types of RP(conservative/mainstream advanced)+Cockney+estuary English([u]instead of L glottal stop intead of t).Usa- GA/southern accent- rural not prestigious+local accents – less educated people.

9-2. Interference. I.- superimposiong one lang. system on another lang. syst. Which leads to certain changes in the structure of one lang. syst. under the influence of the other lang. E.g. interaction of E and R. Interference may take place in any aspect of a L. and may be considered at diff levels(phonetical,grammat., lexical). The most vivid in-ce is at the phonetic level. That’s explained by the fact that audiopronouncing skills are the least controlled at speech production/perception. Prerequisits for in-ce(phonetic level):1) the diff-ces in the phonological system of the L-s which are in contact(E- highly developed system of diphthongs R- no diphthongs at all)2)diff. in the phonetic laws(E voiced consonants aren’t devoiced in final position, in R they are log – луг) 3/ Diff in the phonetic basis(articulatory& prosodic bases): different articulatory settings lead to an accent. Diff in dynamic aspect cause mistakes(in E transition from consonant to vowel is loose in R it’s close; high degree of reduction in E, low in R). Prosodic basis – diff intonational patterns of the land-s under consideration lead to phonetic mistakes.

10-1 Word accent phon. features,acoustic nature,types of w.a..A property of sylables which make them stand out as more noticeable than the others is called stress.Word stress is pattern of a word,an essential component of a word’s phonological form.another term used in phonetic litr-r is accent(placement of pitch prominence (higher or lower pitch than surrounding.))stress is the degree of force used in producting a syllable.stressed syllables are usually more prominent than unstressed ones.the prominence is due to increase in loudness of the stressed syllable but increase of length and and often pitch may contribute to the overall impression of prominence.thus the term stress is more often used to refer to all sorts of prominence while accent is more often associated with pitch.The acoustic correlates of the prosodic features of lengh,loudness and pitch are duration ,intensity and fundamental frequency.On the articulatory level greater loudness is achieved by subglotal muscular adjustment which will result in increased fundamental frequency.i.e.pitch.However the auditory sensation of loudness will increase here as well.Thus there is no simple one-to-one corrrespondence between a certain articulatory gesture and an auditory effect.

Experimental data show that pitch and length are particulary important cues for stress perception in english,whereas vowel length and vowel quality are decisive fo russian language.the overal imprission of greater stress in English is due to a greater contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables in pitch and duration. There are two main types of word stress- fixed and variable.languages of the fixed stress type have stresse predominantly on a given location in a word.Languages with variable stress enjoy more freedom for stress placement.

French is another language where word stress is normally fixed on on the last Syllable. ypologically,English has hybrid-stress system:on the level of the word,stress rules are in many ways similar to those of Romance languages in that the pattern of stress is basically determined with the reference to the right edge of the word

10.2

One of the problems of phonological analysis is the establishment of the inventory of distinctive features on which all the phonological oppositions are based. Every sound has a member features not all of which are important for communication.

Some features are phonologically relevant, others are irrelevant or incidental.

A phoneme is characterized by a set of phonologically relevant features that make it different from all the other phonemes of the language. These constant features aren’t affected by the phonetic context.

It may be said that these features enable the phoneme to perform its distinctive (contrastive) functions. The rest of the features are considered to be irrelevant

e.g.

/p/ : relevant features: labial, occlusive, fortis ; irrelevant: oral, aspirated, voiceless

Irrelevant features:

May be indispensable concomitant (обязат. сопутствующие) & incidental redundant (случайн. избыт.)

IC – not affected by the phonetic context. These features are present in all the allophones of the phoneme

two foci, oral or nasal articulation, lip rounding and others may serve as a basis for a single phonological opposition, but in very rare cases when all the relevant features are the same. (/s/ vs. /Ѳ/ - lingual, constrictive, but round narrowing vs. flat narrowing)

IR – Для оппозиций не нужна. These features may be present in some allophones but absent in the others. e.g. aspiration. contextually dependant.

Relevant features:

Are nomaly identified by opposing 1 phoneme to every other phoneme of the language

11-1 Syllable difinition,diff approaches.Syllable is a minimal grouping of vowels and consonants necessary for articlation(phonetic unit) and for sorting strings of phonemes in the mental representation( phonnological unit).Syllable can be defined as a complex unit made up of nuclear and marginal elements,with vowwels acting as nuclear,syllabic elements and consonants as marginal or non-syllabic.the notion of phonetical unit is difficult to define,no phonetician has succeeded so far in giving an adequate description of what syllable is.There have been attempts to describe it as a minimal articulatory unit in terms of “chest-pulse” theory by Stetson,sonority theory by Jespersen as an arc of muscular tension by Scherba or an arc of loudness by Zhinkin.Syllable is also a minimal prosodic unit in which prosodic features of pitch,lenght and loudness may be realized.the sylable is operational in all languages.it is a universal phenomenon.the syllable may consist of of the onset ,the nucleus and coda.the nucleus +coda coda constitute the rhyme . Syllable can open and closed.and there is an overall tendency towards open syllables.

11-2.In all E speaking countries – a close&obvious connection between lang and social class: speech stratification correlates with social stratification. The most important factor in social stratification – the way people speak. Accent are associated with people who use them. E.g. an RP speaker associated with authority, competence etc. southern accent in the US – with ignorance, conservative views. The most powerful stratifying social factor is occupation, then come age(advanced RP) and gender factors(woman speak grammatically more correctly)The social marker(a distinctive feature of a social class e.g. r as social marker of the middle class in NY, d instead of fricative ð in Brooklynese accent ) is more common for one class than the others though traces of the same tendency can be found in all the strata of the speech community and there is gradience in the transitions from one to another: the idea of continuum is demonstrated by the presense of the same trend in all the classes and gradual transitions from one class to the other.Mutual intelligibility within a speech community is maintained by the presence of the continuum in lang change.

12.1Phonemes & allophones

There are numerous phonetic differences in sets of relevant consonants & vowels. Sometimes it’s difficult to decide whether it’s the same sound or a different one.

e.g. ASPIRATION

aspirated consonants – before stressed vowels, unless they’re proceeded by /s/

non-aspirated – when /p/ /t/ /k/ are preceded by /s/ =>

/p/ & /ph/ ; /t/& /th/ ; /k/ & /kh/ - allophones (or realizations) of the phonemes /p/ /t/ /k/ that appear in different phonetic contexts, they’re in complementary distribution (they complement each other) (but in Korean and Hindi, for example, aspirated and non-aspirated consonants are different phonemes, cuz they may even distinguish words)

e.g. voiced plosive /d/ vs. (AmE – inter)dental sound /ð /

These 2 are different phonemes (they may appear in the same phonetic context and by replacing 1 for the other – we get a diff. word day-they)

But in Castillian Sp. These two are allophones of the phoneme /d/ (poder - /poðer/; nada – /naða/)

Conclusion: two or more sounds are allophones – if they’re in complementary distribution & if they’re phonetically similar.

Two or more sounds are different phonemes – if they’re in parallel (overlapping) distribution and they serve to differentiate words, that is that a semantic contrast is caused by substitution of one for the other

Definitions: (крошки, сюда мона добавить билет 20.1 там проблема дефиниций фонемы, просто там дофига, поэтому сюда не стал вставлять))))

Elements that differentiate words or gr. forms (man-men) are called phonemes

Phoneme (Vasil’ev) – the smallest & further indivisible into smaller successive elements. “Linguistically relevant unit” of the language sound structure, which serves to distinguish 1 word from another or 1 gr. form from another

Phoneme (H. Giegerich) – the minimal contrastive units of a language that distinguish words thus representing differences in meaning

A phoneme is a dialectal unit of 2 aspects – material & abstract. The linguistic role of the phoneme is clearly seen from the 3 functions of the phoneme:

1. constitutive

2. distinctive

3. the identificatory (recognitive)

allophones

actual units of speech, allophones of one and the same phoneme are similar and don’t contrast with each other.

Allophones may be PRINCIPAL (don’t undergo any distinguishable changes, not positionaly determined. Most representative of the phoneme team – the principal variant of /t/) or SUBSIDUARY (positional determined). Subsiduary allophones may be COMBINATORY (result of assimilation eighth) or POSITIONAL (traditionally used in a fixed position e.g. – dark &clear /l/)

Distribution of allophones:

-Contrastive (krowka Wevchenko lubit – parallel or overlapping) – allophones of diff phonemes are said to be in contrastive distribution – they occur in the same position distinguishing the meaning of words

-Complementary – allophones of the same phoneme that never occur in the same position (aspiration, dark & clear L)

-Free variation – elements of the same phoneme which occur in the same position but are not able to differentiate meanings (poor –/ по:/ или /пуэ/)

12.2Many linguists suppose that there must be a basic rhythmic unit (BRU) for all types of speech activity, and the BRU for stress timed languages (such as English, German, Arabic, Greek etc.) is a rhythmic group.

Rhythmic group – segment which contains a stressed syllable & an unstressed syllable attached to it. There are 2 viewpoints on the character of unstressed syllable attachment:

Semantic	Enclitic
Unstressed syllables tend to be drawn to stressed syllables of the same word, or to a lexical unit acc to their semantic or gramm. connection	Unstressed syllables tend to join the previously stressed syllable & a rhythmic group always begins with a stressed syllable in the case

e.g. SEMANTIC: walk ζ down ζ the path ζ to the end ζ of the canal

ENLICTIC: walk ζ down the ζ path to the ζ end of the ζ canal

Speech tempo & the style of speech influence the division into sense groups. The semantic tendency is more typical of accurate, rather slow speech when a phrase falls into separate words.

The enclitic tendency prevails in informal speech, which is characterized by quick tempo

13.1Phonetic basis – suggests a number of the most typical pronunciation habits & tendencies of the language. These tendencies are perceived by listeners as a certain colouring of the language under consideration.

The phonetic basis includes the articulatory (or organic) basis & the prosodic

The static aspect of the AB – the position of the organs of speech provided a person does not speak (or is about to speak) or pronounces an isolated sound. This position of the organs of speech is called articulatory setting

The dynamic aspect of the AB – Is the manner of transition from a consonant to a consonant, from a consonant to a vowel, from a vowel to a consonant within a syllable or a junction of syllables & words. This aspect suggests dynamics of articulation of vowels in stressed & unstressed syllables.

e.g.

transition from consonant to a vowel is characterized as loose in English & close in Russian, that is why mistakes a t this level appear (“бит” |low degree of reduction| instead of “bit”|high degree of reduction|) (suppose – сапог)

13-2.Melodic contour is studied within a sense group.In terms of its structure anf functions it includes;1)pre-head(high/low)2)nuclear tone3)head)4)scale. The ability of similar contours to express opposite m-ng leads us to the &if the melodic contour have an independent meaning of its own or it’s totally dependent on the context. We can conclude that tones have independent meanings but these mean-gs are nebulous in character.within the contour the combination of gr lex ans situation brings out the local meaning of a tone. Now every tone is viewed as a combination of relatively independent total features each of which contributes to the total meaning of the text in its own way. Each tone has 2 cardinal points:1)the end point.- responsible for definiteness/indefiniteness, completeness/incompleteness;the lower the end point the more categoric it sounds2)the onset point- signals the degree of the speakers involvement in the situation(interest)the higher the onset- the higher the interest. What is said about tones is true about scales- high –involved,low- not involved. All the mean-s described – attitudinal.

14-1.GA vs RP

The main defining feature of British is the absence of post-vocalic r - non-rhotic compared to North America – rhotic accents. Rp is a social prestige accent spoken by a tiny minority of the population.The proportion of Ga speakers is much higher(33%). Most of the distinctions are found in the system of vowels(bec of the preservation of r in GA). Vowels. 20 in Rp & 15-16 in GA(bec r not vocalized). GA lacks diphtongs ending in ∂. GA: retroflexed vowels[∂:r], [∂˜],stressed and unstressed distinguish it from RP. 1)All vowels before r within a syllable are likely to become r-coloured. E.g. here – RP [hi∂] GA [hir].

2)GA lacks the short rounded /|o/ it is replaced by a vowel /a:/ E.g. lock RP [l|ok] GA [la:k]. /|o/ may be also replaced by a long vowel /o:/: long RP [l|oŋ] GA [lo: ŋ]. GA is not as strictly codified as RP. There is a considerable variability in GA vowels in the open back area.3)American linguists do not use the transcription system which allows to distinguish long and short vowels in GA.GA is described as having lax vowels, tense(historically long) vowels and wide diphthongs. Lax vowels are made with less tension: they do not usually end syllables.4)the American œ is somewhat closer than the RP /œ/So merry Mary married sounds as if all the accented vowels are identical. In GA œ is also used in ws in which RP has /a:/ when there is no letter r in spelling(it’s called difference in distribution of phoneme in phonology) E.g. dance RP [da:ns] GA [d œns]. 5)the diphthong [∂u] is more rounded in GA. Consonants. The consonant system is more constant than the vowel system, but still there are some GA pronunciation features:1) r is retroflex(the tip of the tongue curled back) and used in all the positions where there is an r in spelling. In RP – cacuminal. The degrees of retroflexion may affect the quality of the preceding vowel: hurry RP [h/\ri] GA [h∂ri] 2) the American [t] in the intervocalic position is realized as a flap the tip of the tongue beats against the teeth ridge just once. Acoustically it reminds [d] and [r].3) when t follows n it’s nearly omitted. The more standard pronunciation is [t] pronounced as a flap.4) the sound [t] is affected by the process of glottalisation in both varieties of English/ The frequency of its occurrence is socially marked. One of the most favourable conditions for glottal stop to replace [t] is before [m n l r j w]: that man [tha? m œn] 5) the sound /j/ in GA is weakened or omitted: news RP [nju:z] GA [nu:z]6)the sound /l/ is dark,non-palatalized in all positions in GA while in RP it’s clear(palatalized) before a front vowel and dark at the end of the word and before a consonant: little RP[litł] GA [łitł] 7) there are lexic items pronounced differently: tomato RP[t∂’ma:t∂u] GA[t∂’meitou] either RP[‘aið∂] GA [i: ð∂].

?14-2 Functions of WS. Word stress biulds the sound image of a word;it shapes a word by making one(or more) syllables more prominent than the others- constitutive.To emphasize the idea that the stresse sylable constitutes the centre,the culmination point in a word- culminative.The recurrent stress pattern of the word helps the listener to recognize it in the flow of speech-recognetive(identifying)And stress most commonly marks odd the end or the beginnig of a word and therefor signals the end of a word-demarcative.Less common but still significant is the role of English word stress in signifying the morphological class of a word: 300 h minimal pair which are distinguished by stress placement :’insult- to in’sult- morphological.Syntactic function in distinguishing between a compound noun such as ‘hotdog and ’hot ‘dog.

Accentual types of words.different distributions of stressed and unstressed syllables within a word.in modern russian there are 47 accentual types of w.more than 100 stressed patterns

15-1.Functions of intonation.1)syntactic f-n:a)phrasing or the division of utterances into meaningful units which are called intonational groups(used to be called syntactic bec boundaries between intonational groups generally correspond with clause and major syntactic boundaries. Besides pitch change often marks such boundaries: pause, changes in tempo etc. Proper phrasing helps to disambiguate sentences like: Those who sold quickly/made profit//&those who sold/quickly made profit//.The correspondence with a syntactic unit is considered to be the basic(the neutral/unmarked)case of intonation grouping. When speaking slowly in a formal style the speaker may choose to break up a S into a large number of phrases/in conversational style- one one intonation phrase per S.b)Tones: another aspect of intonation bec basic tones are generally associated with certain syntactical types of S.:falling tone – statements, special questions,commands, exclamations;rising tone-general questions, requests,warnings. Nowadays it’s attributed to thepragmatic fun-n.2)accentual function – depends on the position of primary and secondary stresses in the intonational group. Intonation helps to distinguish new & old topic, theme and rheme.2 major positions – the initial one and the final one.Ideally the 1^st one is the theme and the final one is the rheme(though in actual speech they may be reversed.3)attitudinal function – the function of intonation consists in expressing the attitude of the speaker towards what is being spoken about(expressive/emotional) The ability of intonation to express attitudes is associated with tones and pitch range features accompanied by voice quality and tempo changes.(e.g. low fall the most neutral; full fall – emotionally involved; mid-fall- routine comment).4) Semantic function – the assumption is based on the diff in the meaning of the whole S/just one word brought about by a change in the pitch pattern: I ‘scream;”I ‘love it”/ ‘Ice cream,I ‘love it.5)Discourse f-n – the study of the discourse function tries to look at S intonation patterns within larger contexts in which they occur. It gives us a chance to find that there are prosodic cues which serve as references to shared knowledge,signals to focus the listener’s attention on what is important, means to regulate the conversational behaviour of the participants. Practically all the separate func-ns attributed to intonation could be seen as different aspects of discourse f-n.

15-2 Fixed and free stress. There are two main types of word stress- fixed and variable.languages of the fixed stress type have stresse predominantly on a given location in a word.Languages with variable stress enjoy more freedom for stress placement. A case when a stress falls obligatory on the final sylable is Tatar.French is another language where word stress is normally fixed on on the last Syllable.Other examples of fixed stress are Finnish and Chech,both with initial syllable stress.It is found that there is a relatively strong tendency for languages to prefer final or penultimate syllables for location of fixed lexical stress.A relatively small proportion of the languages of the world allow range of different locations of stress:Dutch ,english ,russian,greek,italian.Typologically,English has hybrid-stress system:on the level of the word,stress rules are in many ways similar to those of Romance languages in that the pattern of stress is basically determined with the reference to the right edge of the word.

16-1. RP as a standard of English pronunciation. Types of RP.

RP – received pronunciation. Or BBC English in the UK. Originates from the south-east(London). It’s a social-prestige accent spoken by a tiny minority of the population, estimated at 3-5%only. It may show a great deal about the social and educational background of a person who uses English. A person using the RP will typically speak Standard English although the reverse is not necessarily true (i.e., the standard language may be spoken in regional accents). Researchers generally distinguish between three different forms of RP: Conservative lawyers/clergy, General(mainstream) – BBC newsreaders, and Advanced. Conservative RP refers to a traditional accent associated with older speakers with certain social backgrounds; General RP is often considered neutral regarding age, occupation, or lifestyle of the speaker; and Advanced RP refers to speech of a younger generation of speakers.(poor conserv/mainstream – [pu∂], advanced – [po:]. Another classification(Crutenden): General RP, Refined RP and Regional RP(social&regional accent classification). Refined RP here is an upper-class accent, the number of speakers using it is declining, it’s regarded as affected. Regional RP reflects regional variation and varies according to which region is envolved(e.g. vocalization of dark L to [u])