Учебное пособие_Контрольные работы по английскому языку

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studies the physical aspects of ignition, combustion and heat transfer.

Another section studies building materials under fire conditions to obtain basic data for the design and protection of buildings. Tests are carried out on structural elements. Results are used in advice given to architects, builders, structural engineers and local authorities on appropriate types of structure and materials. Two more sections deal with industrial fires and explosions involving gases, vapors, dusts and unstable materials not classified as explosives and the properties and methods of application of extinguishing agents – water, foam and dry powder. Tests are also conducted on such equipment as automatic sprinkler systems, fire extinguishers and automatic fire alarms.

In our country we can say we have the oldest Higher Educational centre in the world training safety engineers.

The Moscow Institute of Fire Safety has accumulated a great deal of experience in training specialists for fire protection at different levels.

There are the following faculties at the institute: the faculty of fire safety engineers on the base of the general secondary education with five years period of training; the faculty of fire safety engineers on the base of the secondary specialized education with three years period of education; the faculty of training of leading staff officers with year and a half period of training; a refresher course for fire safety engineers with one month period of education; a post graduate and doctorate courses.

About 130 professors and teachers well-known in Russia and in other countries have been working at the institute. Annually about 550 specialists in Fire Protection of the highest qualification graduate from the institute, the total number of such specialists is more than 18000.

About 2000 fire safety engineers and researchers for fire service of Bulgaria, Hungary, Viet-Nam, Germany, Guinea, Cuba, Moldavia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and other countries used to study at the institute.

The Moscow Institute of Fire Safety keeps in touch with many Fire Safety Educational Establishments.

1.What was the aim of the first fire testing station and what is its purpose nowadays?

2.How is work organized in the operational research and intelligence section?

3.What section studies the physical aspects of ignition and combustion?

4.Who are the results important for?

5.Who does the Institute of Fire Safety train?

6.How many specialists graduate from it annually?

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III.Road Engineering

Дорожное строительство

Текст 1

Right-of-Way

The zone which is marked to lay the road is called the road zone or right-of- way. The higher is the technical classification of the road, the wider is the right-of- way for its construction. The road zone includes such parts of a road as a carriageway, road shoulders, inner and outer slopes, and other parts.

The road surface strip within the limits of which motor vehicles run is called a carriageway. Usually it is reinforced by means of natural or artificial stone aggregates. These stone aggregates form the pavement.

The strips of the ground which adjoin the carriageway are called the road shoulders. The shoulders render lateral support to the pavement. In future the pavement will always be made of solid materials within the limits of the carriageway.

To lay the carriageway at the required level above the ground surface a formation or roadbed is constructed. It is constructed in the form of embankments or cuttings with side ditches for drainage and the diversion of water.

The formation includes borrow pits – shallow excava tions from which the soil was used for filling the embankments. It also includes spoil banks. Spoil banks are heaps of excessive soil remaining after the excavation of cuttings.

The carriageway and shoulders are separated from the neighbouring land by slopes. The cuttings and side ditches have inner and outer slopes. The junction of the surface of the shoulders and the embankment slope is called the edge of the roadbed. The distance between the edges is called the width of the roadbed.

1.What is called the road zone or right-of-way?

2.What parts of a road does the road zone include?

3.What is called a carriageway?

4.Is the carriageway usually reinforced by means of natural or artificial stone aggregates?

5.What is a roadbed constructed for?

6.What is called the edge of the roadbed?

7.What is called the width of the roadbed?

Текст 2

Pavement Structural Layers

To ensure all-year-round operation of vehicles traffic on a road, the carriageway is covered with a pavement. The pavement is laid on the surface of the roadbed. It can be rigid or semi-rigid structure. The pavement resists traffic stresses and climatic factors.

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The stresses induced in the pavement by motor vehicle wheels attenuate with the depth. This enables the pavement to be designed in the form of a multilayer structure. The pavement consists of the following layers: the surfacing, the pavement base, the sub-base and the subgrade.

1.Surfacing is the upper and most rigid layer of the pavement. It is comparatively thin, but resists well the abrasion and the impacts caused by the wheels, and also the effect of weather conditions. Usually the surfacing is the most expensive part of the pavement. Surfacing usually comprises two coats or courses – a course and a wearing course.

2.Below the surfacing base coat is the pavement base, a strong bearing layer of stony material or stone with a binding matrix. This layer is designed to distribute the individual wheel-loads over the roadbed or sub-base. The pavement base is not subjected to the direct action of automobile wheels.

3.The sub-base is a layer of earth or stone materials, resistant to moisture, inserted when necessary between the pavement base and the roadbed. The sub-base reduces the required thickness of the pavement base. The sub-base is made of gravel, slag, soil treated with binding agents, sand, etc.

4.The subgrade comprises the thoroughly compacted upper layers of the roadbed, upon which are laid the layers of the pavement.

1.What is the carriageway covered with a pavement for?

2.What structure can the pavement be?

3.What enables the pavement to be designed in the form of a multilayer structure?

4.How many courses does the surfacing comprise?

5.Where is the pavement base laid?

6.What is the pavement base designed for?

7.What does the subgrade comprise?

Текст 3

Side Ditches

For collecting water from the roadbed side ditches, flumes, interception ditches and drain channeling can be used. Present road construction provides side ditches parallel with the roadway. A side ditch is intended to collect the water discharged by the crown. It also collects the water from the roadside. Water from the adjoining land must be collected by the side ditch too. The side ditch discharges into a natural outlet at the first opportunity.

Side ditches in cuttings and next to embankments may be excavated to a depth of up to 0.6 m. These ditches are for the collection of water flowing off the road surface and from adjoining land during rainfall or snow thawing. The side ditch may contribute to the drainage of the subgrade because of the evaporation of moisture from the side ditch inner slopes. However, the major use of the side ditch is to permit the rapid discharge of water. When this water discharge is not ensured and ponding occurs, the side ditch becomes a source from which water may penetrate back under the road, resulting in saturation of the subgrade.

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The cross-section of the ditch is either V-typed or trapezoidal. In the case of impermeable soils and in less favorable conditions of runoff the side ditches can be given a trapezoidal cross-section with a bottom width of 0.4 m and a depth of up to 0.7-0.8 m from the edge embankment. If the road must be built in dry country with a rapid surface runoff, and the occurrence of ground water is deep, the side ditches are given the shape of triangular flues of 0.3 m minimum depth. The V-typed side ditch can be easily constructed and maintained with the blade grader. The V-typed side ditch cannot be deep and, therefore, it is much safer than the trapezoidal side ditch.

1.What is the side ditch intended to?

2.What does the side ditch discharge into?

3.Why may the side ditch contribute to the drainage of the subgrade?

4.What is the major use of the side ditch?

5.When does the side ditch become a source from which water may penetrate back under the road, resulting in saturation of the subgrade?

6.The cross-section of the ditch is either V-typed or trapezoidal, isn’t it?

7.What machine can the side ditch be easily constructed and maintained with?

IV. Economy and Management

Экономика и управление

Текст 1

Personnel Management

The most valuable asset of any business is its people. Land, buildings, goods, and equipment may dominate a balance sheet, but they do not make a business successful: people do. The best businesses are the ones that have the best people

— capable, creative, energetic people. To attract t hem requires both ingenuity and initiative on the part of an employer. But the payoff in productivity is worth it. Staffing your business with the best people should be one of the highest priorities.

Staffing, leading and controlling are important functions of management. The main aim of staffing is to fill and keep filled the positions in the organization structure with competent people. It also involves selecting, hiring, promoting, planning the career, compensating and training.

Many firms have a personnel department with personnel manager directly responsible for coordinating activities of the employees.

Yet, whether or not there is a personnel department, all managers are responsible for managing human resources.

1.What do business successful?

2.What functions of management are named?

3.What assets of a business are mentioned in the text?

4.Which of them is characterized as the most valuable? Why?

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5.What does the term "to staff" mean?

6.Who is directly responsible for coordinating activities of the employees?

7.What people are responsible for personnel management in an organization?

Текст 2

Legal Forms of Business

Having decided to set up your own business, you should choose the legal form it will take. There are three legal forms to choose from: sole proprietorship, partnership and corporation (limited company). No one form is better than another. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. The important thing is to be sure the chosen form is best for you.

Many businesses are sole proprietorships, which mean that they are owned and run by one person. Setting up a sole proprietorship is easy; it does not need many formalities. As a sole trader, a person is fully responsible for the success or failure of his / her business. Any profits go to the owner; any losses are his or her responsibility as well. If losses become greater than the investment, the owner is responsible for paying them, even if this touches all personal assets. This feature is called unlimited liability.

There is no legal difference between the owner and the business. As the business is personal to the owner, it is liquidated upon the death of the owner. Finances for a sole trader are usually limited to his or her own savings or to what can be borrowed from family or friends. Therefore sole proprietorships are usually small businesses.

When a proprietor wants to expand a business, one way to do so is to form a partnership, a business formed for profit by two or more co-owners. The rights and duties of a partnership are regulated by laws and by a legal agreement made by the partners. Usually an agreement states how much capital each partner has put up, how profits will be shared, and how the business will be run between the partners.

All partners are legally responsible for any of the firm's activities, in other words, each partner has unlimited liability, meaning that all partners are liable for the debts of the business. They share the risks and the profits or losses associated with their business.

A way to avoid the risks of unlimited liability is to form a limited partnership. In a limited partnership there are two kinds of partners – general and limited. General partners have unlimited liability for the business. The liability of limited partners is limited to the amounts of their investments.

However, in exchange for this limited liability, limited partners are usually not allowed to take an active part in the firm's management. There must be at least one general partner in such kind of partnership.

1. What legal forms of business are described in the text?

2.How many people can own a sole proprietorship?

3.What liability has a sole trader for his / her business?

4.How can a person raise funds for setting up a new business?

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5.What kind of business is partnership?

6.What is the liability of partners for running a usual partnership?

7.What kinds of partners are there in a limited partnership?

Текст 3

Pricing, Promotion, Distribution

Marketing management is an important function of a business. The marketing manager is responsible for the totality of a company's market offering - the range of products and their packaging, the prices charged, the discounts offered, the communications media employed (television, press, personal salesmen, direct mail, etc.), and the channels through which the product or service is delivered to the customer (retailers, mail order, automatic vending, etc.). The activity of the marketing manager determines whether or not the company meets its financial objectives. The sale of products or services is normally the sole income generator in a company while most remaining personnel solely incur costs.

Hence, marketing management must maintain continuous contact with those colleagues in the company who are responsible for manufacturing the products or providing the service for sale, and with those financial colleagues who are responsible for controlling budgets, raising capital and distributing profits.

1.What is an important function of a business?

2.What is the range of duties of a marketing manager?

3.What determines the activity of the marketing manager?

4.Why is his/her activity vital for the company's financial standing?

5.What interdepartmental contacts are important for marketing managers?

6.What are financial managers responsible for?

7.Which channels are products or services delivered to the customer through?

V.Automation of Technological Processes

Автоматизация технологических процессов

Текст 1

The History of the Internet

The 1990s saw great changes in the way people communicate. People could send mail without going to the post office, and go shopping without leaving home. Words like e-mail and download became part of people's vocabulary. The cause of this great change was the Internet.

The idea for the Internet began in the early 1960s in the United States. The Department of Defense wanted to connect their computers together in order to share private information. In 1969, the Arpanet (an early form of the Internet) first connected computers at four American universities. One computer successfully sent information to another. In 1972, scientists shared Arpanet with the world.

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They created a way to send person-to-person messages using Arpanet. This was the beginning of e-mail.

Over the next few years, there was a lot of progress made in the world of computing, but most people were not using the Internet. Then, in the 1980s, personal computers became more common. In the early 1990s, two important things happened: the birth of the World Wide Web in 1991, and the creation of the first Web browser in 1993. The Web made it easier to find information on the Internet, and to move from place to place using links. The Web and browser made it possible to see information as a web site with pictures, sound, and words.

Today, millions of people connect to the Internet to send e-mail, visit web sites, or store information on servers. Computers are now an important part of our lives and are changing how we learn, work, shop, and communicate.

1.What was the great change in people’s life?

2.How and where did the idea for the Internet begin?

3.What was an early form of the Internet?

4.What was the beginning of e-mail?

5.When was the birth of the World Wide Web?

6.How do millions of people use the Internet today?

7.How are computers changing our lives?

Текст 2

The Internet

The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all over the world, began in the United States in 1969 as a military experiment. It was designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them. This technology is called packet switching. Owing to this technology, if some computers on the network are knocked out (by a nuclear explosion, for example), information will just route around them.

The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail messages.

In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a reliable alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunication systems of these countries. However there are still both commercial and technical problems which will take time to be resolved.

The most important is security. When you send an e-mail message to somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and computers. The data is constantly being directed towards its destination by special computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the Internet.

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1.What is the Internet?

2.Where and when did the Internet begin?

3.What is called packet switching?

4.What is the most popular Internet service?

5.What is the most important problem with Internet?

6.Why is it possible to change the data being sent over the Internet?

7.How can you get into any of computers and change the data?

Текст 3

Going Online

All over the world, people are gaining access to the Internet. More and more people are using computers to go online. This change has happened quickly. For example, in 1997, there were fewer than eight million Internet users in Japan. Just five years later, there were almost 65 million. During that same period, Internet use around the world grew by 600%. The Internet is affecting many lives, and it is changing how we communicate. But are these changes good or bad?

The Internet can be a great tool for communication. Everyone agrees on that. People can use e-mail to keep in touch with family and friends whether they are far away or just across town. Sending an e-mail message is quick, easy, and cheap. People can also use the Internet to find new friends. Do you want to talk about politics or sports or how to find true love? Go online! You will find people who share your interests. Maybe you will make friends in distant places and learn about other cultures. In many ways, the Internet can bring people together.

However, some people say that the Internet has the opposite effect. They claim that it is leading to less communication, not more. These people believe that time online means time alone. "The Internet is taking people away from their families and friends," they say. "It draws people away from their communities, and that is not good."

So, what is actually happening? Researchers are trying to find out. They are studying the effects of the Internet on our lives. They are looking at the behaviour of people who use it and people who do not. At this point, there are two basic ideas about what is happening.

Some researchers who have done studies in the United States have bad news for people who often go online. They report that people who use the Internet on a regular basis are more often lonely and unhappy. They say that these people are spending time at their computers instead of with other people, so they have less active social lives.

Other researchers disagree. They describe other studies from the United States and some from England. These show that people who often go online make more connections with other people because they use the Internet to communicate. And here is a surprise. According to these studies, frequent Internet users get in touch more not just online but by phone and in person, too. They have busier social lives, and they are usually happier. They also watch less TV.

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Does going online affect everyone in the same way? Perhaps not. Perhaps the effects of Internet use depend on a person's character. Psychologist Robert Kraut thinks this is so. According to Kraut, the Internet allows social people to become even, more social. It lets them get in touch with friends more easily, and they go out more often. And people who are not social? They may use the Internet to avoid others. They may like going online so that they don't have to talk to anyone. However, this does not mean that the Internet is unhealthy for shy people. In fact, the Internet can help shy people make friends. Researchers find that shy people frequently communicate more easily online than face-to-face.

The Internet is changing how we communicate. Maybe you can see its effects on your own life. It is less easy to see larger changes in our communities or around the entire world, but changes are happening. It is something to think about.

1.Why do people use e-mail?

2.How does the Internet bring people together?

3.What the opposite effect does the Internet have?

4.Does going online affect everyone in the same way?

5.Why do shy people frequently communicate more easily online than face-to- face?

6.How does the Internet influence your own life?

7.How do you prefer to get in touch with your friends just going online, by phone or in person?

VI. Urban Construction and Utilities

Городское строительство

Текст 1

Acquiring Land for Industrial Construction

Recent trends in the real estate market show that increasing numbers of manufacturers are looking to invest in the construction of new production plants throughout Russia.

It is essential that the whole development process should be well planned and professionally executed. The following points are especially important to consider.

Sufficient land plots for industrial construction may be difficult to find in the vicinity of city centers and available transport routes. According to zoning regulations, developers can either build production plants on land that is designated for industrial purposes or obtain a permit to use agricultural land. However, the transfer from the agricultural to industrial category may take up to one year. It is forbidden to start construction on agricultural land regardless of any rights to ownership or unofficial permits.

The developer must familiarize himself with the development plan of the area where the land plot is located in order to confirm that no urban development is planned.

Legal due diligence of the site is absolutely necessary to verify the land title,

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especially in light of privatization issues.

During construction, the investor typically has the right to only a short-term lease (1-3-5 years); however, after the title to the property is officially registered, then the investor may sign a long-term lease (for a maximum of 49 years).

1.What do recent trends in the real estate market show?

2.What should be well planned and professionally executed?

3.Is it difficult to find sufficient land plots for industrial construction?

4.How much time may the transfer from the agricultural to industrial category take?

5.Why must the developer familiarize himself with the development plan?

6.What is absolutely necessary to verify the land title?

7.Does the investor have the right to any term lease?

Текст 2

Allocation of Land for Construction Project

Land plots owned by the state or municipalities can be allocated for construction projects under title or lease. Authorities may not refuse to issue land titles to individuals or companies for construction purposes, unless: the land plots are withdrawn from the market; a federal law prohibits land privatization; or the land plots are reserved for state or municipal needs.

Land can be allocated for construction purposes with or without prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed.

Prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed is required for land plots to be leased out to commercial organizations. Prior consent is normally required for investment in industrial projects in or outside populated areas in cases where no town-planning documentation has been drawn up in relation to such territories and no rules are in effect for land use and development. In such cases, determination of the location of the industrial facilities to be constructed requires thorough analysis of the environmental, architectural, sanitary and other implications of the planned construction.

Municipalities in urban and rural areas are required to notify their inhabitants of possible or forthcoming construction projects. In cases where the location of buildings, structures or facilities affects the common interests of local residents, decisions to proceed with the projects are to be made taking the opinion of the local population into account.

Under the Land Code of the Russian Federation, land may be sold or leased out for construction projects by competitive bidding only, with no requirement for prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed. This procedure is used primarily in cities where the executive authorities or municipalities allocate land plots by tender or auction. Each land plot must be properly prepared for sale or lease.

Prior consent is not required either in cases where a construction project is to be located in a city or a rural populated area in accordance with town-planning