Metodichka_writing

STANDARD TYPES OF ACADEMIC WRITING

This section identifies and discusses standard types of Academic writing.

Comparison and Contrast

Similarities and differences are often noted while classifying (when we divide something into groups, classes, categories according to criteria). When we compare two or more things, we show how they are similar. When we contrast two or more things, we show how they are different.

Note the patterns of comparison and contrast:

A comparison and contrast essay examines two or more subjects to establish the degree of similarity (comparison) or difference (contrast) between them. The overall goal of this type of essay is to gain a deeper understanding of both subjects. Typically, such essays explain the similarities, differences, or both between the subjects in detail or make an argument about the similarities, differences, or both between the subjects.

The pre-writing steps for a comparison and contrast essay are as follows:

1)read the essay question carefully and establish a reason for comparison/contrast;

2)decide the points of comparison/contrast;

3)write a thesis statement;

4)select an essay pattern;

5)outline the essay.

Writing steps

1.Analyze the question carefully. Look over the prompt (and rubric, if you have one) carefully and underline key phrases. Keep a list of these things by you as you work.

2.Research your subjects of comparison/contrast. It’s important not to provide more details than the assignment can handle. Compare a few aspects of each topic instead of trying to cover both topics comprehensively.

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3. Write your essay out of order.

•Body paragraphs first. Work through all that information you've been compiling. Only when you've worked with your data will you know what the larger point of the essay is.

•The conclusion second. Now the point of your essay should be fresh in your mind.

•The introduction last. This is basically a reorganizing/rephrasing of your conclusion. Make sure you don’t reuse the exact same words/phrases.

4. Write the body paragraphs.

•Organize your paragraphs using one of the methods below. Once you have defined your points of comparison/contrast, choose the structure for the body paragraphs (subject by subject or point by point) that makes the most sense for your data. It’s recommended that you should write an outline as a placeholder.

•Be very careful not to address different aspects of each subject.

Comparing the color of one thing to the size of another does nothing to help the reader understand the fundamental points of similarity or difference.

5. Write the conclusion.

•The conclusion should open by giving a brief, general summary of the points covered in the body paragraphs, then, draw a larger conclusion about two subjects. (Be careful to base the conclusion in the data and not your personal preferences, especially if your essay prompt has instructed you to keep a neutral tone.)

•The last sentence of the essay should leave the reader feeling that all the different threads of the essay have been drawn together in a cohesive way.

6. Write the introduction.

•Start with a general point that establishes the similarity (and/or difference) between the two subjects, then move to the specific focus of the essay.

•At the end of the introduction, write a thesis statement that first announces which aspects of each subject you plan to compare/contrast and then states what conclusion you’ve drawn from them.

Practice time

Ex. 1. Complete the sentences using appropriate degrees of comparison of the given adjectives. You may need to change the form of the key words and sometimes you may need to add other words (such as articles, etc.).

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1. The Nile is (long) the Mississippi–Missouri. 2. The Volga is (long) river in Europe. 3. The Neva is (wide) the Moskva River. 4. Elbrus is (high) peak in the Caucasian mountains. 5. Lake Baikal in Siberia is the world’s (deep) lake. It is more then 1,600m deep. 6. The professor is as (old) as he looks. 7. His elder brother is 5 years (old) he is. 8. The students need (far) information for implementing their project work. 9. August is not so (warm) as July. 10. Your home assignment is twice as (large) as ours. 11. (Much) you work (good) you know the language. 12. The students try to do their (good) to cope with (much) complicated tasks. 13. Silver is (heavy) copper. 14. Einstein was one of the most (intelligent) people who has ever lived. 15. Why don’t you learn Spanish? It’s less (difficult) German.

Ex. 2. Read the following paragraph and find all the expressions of comparison paying attention to the structure of the paragraph and the use of linking words.

The Reporter and The Monitor are very similar weekly magazines. First of all, they have many sections in common. For example, both magazines have sections on politics, finance, science, and culture. In addition, both of these popular magazines cost $ 4.99, and both are read by millions of people around the world. They also have the same cover story almost every week, and they usually review the same books and movies in their culture sections. Another similarity between these two magazines is their point of view. The Reporter is very conservative and so is The Monitor. Finally, both magazines are translated into ten languages.

Ex. 3. Read the following paragraph and find the signal words that show contrast.

The Reporter and Style Magazine are very different weekly magazines. First of all, they have different sections. The Reporter has sections on politics, finance, science, and culture. On the other hand, Style has sections on fashion, home decorating, cooking, and gardening. In addition, The Reporter is half as cheap as Style. Finally, The Reporter is translated into ten languages, but Style is only in English.

Ex. 4. Read the paragraphs below and at the end identify the type of paragraph (comparison or contrast). Write the topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs.

Remember: when you write the topic sentence for a comparison paragraph, you must state the two things that you are comparing; when

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you write the topic sentence for a contrast paragraph, you must state the two things that you are contrasting.

Use the following patterns

1._______________________________________________________. First of all, both cities are hot and humid most of the year. The typical daytime temperature in both places is about 92 degrees Fahrenheit (33 degrees Celsius) with humidity of 99 percent. It also rains a lot during the summer in Short Hills and White Plains. The evenings and nights are warm in both places. [This is a __________________ paragraph.]

2._______________________________________________________. First of all, the temperature in Westland is usually hotter than it is in Eastfalls. In Westland it is often in the nineties, but in Eastfalls, the temperature rarely goes above eighty. Secondly, the humidity is much higher in Westland than it is in Eastfalls. It rains a lot in Westland; however, it is usually dry in Eastfalls. Overall, the weather in Eastfalls is more pleasant. [This is a _____________ paragraph.]

Ex. 5. Put the sentences in the correct order to make two paragraphs. Write the paragraphs into your notebooks adding your own ideas.

Nuclear power

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Ex. 6. Use the words and phrases in the box below to complete the following sentences.

1._____________ high school, university offers students many opportunities to enjoy their freedom.

2.The education system in Pakistan is divided into five specific levels.

_____________, in India the system is divided into three broader levels.

3.Boys at same-sex schools showed an increase in motivation and girls ____________ benefited from higher levels of concentration.

4.It is widely believed that private schools offer high–quality education. They cannot guarantee that all students will achieve high scores on the exams, ________________.

5.In Germany, the main responsibility for education lies with individual states within the country. ________________, in France the central government exercises more direct control over education.

6.______________ Britain, France has a long-established system of higher education.

7.______________ most public schools, many private schools can offer smaller class sizes and more modern facilities.

8.Parents often have a difficult choice to make because _____________

private and public schools have specific advantages and disadvantages.

9.Robinson found that Asian students are _____________ North American students in terms of overall academic ability.

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10. _______________ expensive private schools, not free public schools, have the resources to provide individual attention to every student who needs it.

Ex. 7. Look at the table below. Write at least three sentences comparing the mountains listed, which are all in the Himalayas. Use vocabulary from Appendix 3.

The Highest Mountains in the World

1.Everest (Nepal/Tibet) – 29,028 feet (8,848 meters)

2.K2 (Pakistan/India) – 28,250 feet (8,611 meters)

3.Makalu (Nepal/Tibet) – 27,805 feet (8,475 meters)

4.Dhaulagiri (Nepal) – 26,795 feet (8,167 meters)

Ex. 8. A friend of yours is thinking of moving to Australia. He is planning to go either to Canberra or to Sydney. Write a paragraph comparing the two cities. Use the information in the table below. Add your own ideas and suggestions.

Ex. 9. The following paragraph contains nine mistakes (7 in comparative degree of adjectives and 2 in grammar). Find the mistakes and correct them.

Frank received a scholarship to study English in the United States. He had a difficulty time deciding whether he should attend the English

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program at Miami Community College in Miami, Florida or Rocky Mountain College in Denver, Colorado. It would be a lot cheapest for him to go to the community college, but he realize that his living expenses would be a lot more high in the city. Both schools has an excellent reputation, but Rocky Mountain is a much small school with a best student-teacher ratio. If he goes to the community college, he will not be as far away from home and he could go home more oftener. He also thought about how he would spend his free time. He might be happier, comfortabler, and more relaxed in the mountains. Finally, he decided to attend Miami Community because the temperature is warmer in Florida and he is used to warm weather and water sports.

Ex. 10. Read the paragraph which someone wrote for an encyclopedia. There are no factual mistakes but the style is wrong. Write it in a less personal and more formal style. There are 18 examples of bad style in the paragraph.

Flowering plants

There are lots of different types of plants, like ferns, conifers and angiosperms. The largest group of plants are angiosperms, which we also call flowering plants. Flowering plants produce flowers which produce seeds and fruit. Well, we can divide flowering plants into two more types. We call these monocots and dicots. The monocot, which, by the way, means “one seed-leaf”, has got long narrow leaves. The veins in the leaves all go in the same direction. An example of one of these is the palm tree. On the other hand, the dicot (that’s “two seed-leaf”) has got broader leaves. The veins are different too. There’s a main vein and then there are little veins branching off. A tomato plant is an example of a dicot. You can see these two kinds of angiosperm in the picture.

Ex. 11. Write two possible reasons and points for comparison for the following items.

Example: tea and coffee

a)which is better for health – drinking tea or coffee;

b)the role that tea and coffee houses play in society.

1.Movies and books.

2.Team sports and individual sports.

3.Studying at a university in your country and studying abroad.

4.Home-made foods and processed foods.

5.Air pollution and water pollution.

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Ex. 12. Write a possible thesis statement for each of the topics mentioned in the previous exercise. Look at some examples given below.

•Books are more beneficial than movies because books enhance mental development, academic skills, and verbal ability.

•Because they are usually not tied to a certain place, time, or the presence of other participants, most individual sports can be predicted more easily than team sports.

•Studying at a university in one’s home country and studying abroad are very different in terms of their usefulness for one’s future career, the personal support available, and the cost involved.

Ex. 13. Study the following introductions to comparison essays and analyze their strengths and weaknesses. Find the thesis statement or prove the absence of it.

1.Consuming fresh foods instead of canned foods. Eating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where the variety of food is immense, and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we are about to eat and how it will affect our bodies. The purpose of this essay is to compare and contrast fresh foods and canned foods. The three main differences are flavour, health benefits, and cost.

2.Malaysia and Britain. Malaysia and Britain are two countries of approximately the same size. Neither country is very big. Although there are other similarities between them, there are also many differences.

3.Low carbohydrate diets and low fat diets. The two most popular methods to lose weight are the low carbohydrate diets and low fat diets. Both are in complete contrast when it comes to each diet’s food choices. The low carbohydrate diet, which completely breaks the food pyramid, limits a person to eating foods that are high in carbohydrates, such as bread, pasta and rice, while on the other hand, the low fat diet which follows the food pyramid limits a person to eat foods that are high in fat like meat, milk, and bean groups. Although each diet may sound very different from one another, they also share similarities.

4.Palestine and the USA. Palestine has gone through a tragedy in the recent years. The 1948 war attacks have made a huge impact on Palestine. Despite that event, the United States of America (commonly referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. Palestine is located in South–West Asia and is in the heart of the Middle East. To its north is Syria and Lebanon, to its south are the Gulf of Aqaba and the Sinai Peninsula, and on its east is Jordan. The United States is

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located in North America, is washed by two oceans – the Atlantic and the Pacific, and is situated between Canada and Mexico. Both countries are big; Palestine covers the area of 27.000 square kilometers, while the United States covers the area of 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2). Both countries have many differences based on holidays, food, and customs.

Ex. 14. Read the following essay. Define the essay pattern and name the points of comparison.

Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana lived at different times in different countries, but their lives had some surprising similarities.

First of all, both women had a difficult childhood. Monroe spent many years without parents in an orphanage, and Diana’s mother left the family when she was six.

Later in their lives, both women married famous men. Princess Diana married Prince Charles, and Marilyn Monroe married a famous baseball player and later a famous writer. They also had difficult marriages and eventually separated from their husbands.

Another similarity between Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana was that they were both very popular. Diana was called ‘The people’s princess’ because she was so friendly and open-hearted. Although Monroe was famously sexy, she was well-liked because she seemed very innocent.

However, although they both seemed to have very happy lives, the women had emotional problems and often felt sad and depressed. Monroe went through serious depression and had to have medical treatment. Likewise, Diana suffered from an eating problem and was depressed during parts of her marriage.

The last similarity between the two women was their deaths at an early age. In fact, they were both thirty-six years old when they died, Monroe in 1962 and Diana in 1997.

The similar life circumstances and lifestyles of Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana explain a lot about why the women had similar personalities.

Ex. 15. Using the points of comparison from exercise 11, make an outline for the following.

1.Movies and books.

2.Team sports and individual sports.

3.Studying at a university in your country and studying abroad.

4.Home-made foods and processed foods.

5.Air pollution and water pollution.

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Ex. 16. Write a comparison and contrast essay on the following topics.

1.A female friend and a male friend.

2.Physical beauty and inner beauty.

3.Being rich and being famous.

4.The benefits of cold and the benefits of heat.

5.Your happiest day and your saddest day.

Cause and Effect

Cause and effect essays are concerned with why things happen (causes) and what happens as a result (effects). Cause and effect is a common method of organizing and discussing ideas. Sometimes, many causes contribute to a single effect or many effects may result from a single cause.

Writing steps

1.Distinguish between cause and effect. To determine causes answer the question “Why did this happen?” To identify effects answer the question “What happened because of this?” Remember your purpose. Decide if you are writing to inform or persuade.

2.Develop your thesis statement. State clearly whether you are discussing causes, effects, or both. Introduce your main idea, using the terms “cause” and/or “effect”. Back up your thesis with relevant and sufficient details (introduction).

3.Focus on immediate and direct causes (or effects). Limit yourself to causes that are close in time and related, as opposed to remote and indirect causes, which occur later and are related indirectly. Use appropriate transitions (body paragraphs).

4.Strengthen your essay by using supporting evidence. Define terms, offer facts and statistics, or provide examples, anecdotes, or personal observations that support your ideas (body paragraphs).

5.Summarize the causes and effects covered in the essay. Give an overall idea of what the essay is about. Finish the essay with a prediction or recommendation, a call for action, or even present a solution to the problem (conclusion).

This particular essay is organized in the following ways:

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