Innovations in Medical Sensors

Biomedical electronics research is being driven by the aging "baby-boomer" population and their medical needs. This phenomenon is spurring fast development of new biotechnologies and need for access to innovative means of medical diagnosis and treatment in preventive medicine. Subsequently, the technologies of implants and advanced wireless electronic media will help alleviate rising medical costs in today’s society and extend the average longevity with a quality life in our later years.

The brain. Closed-loop deep brain stimulation (CDBS), for people with epilepsy, Parkinson's Disease (PD) or even obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), is a prime example of implementation of a biomedical electronic solution that offers an enhancement to the quality of life in someone afflicted with such conditions.

The DBS system detects a patient's electroencephalogram (EEG) and automatically generates DBS electrical pulses to prevent the onset of an epileptic seizure or even helps lessen the tremors of PD. DBS sends specific stimuli to different regions of the brain. DBS is used in patients who are resistant to drug treatment and those who suffer from motor fluctuations and tremors. Similar to a cardiac pacemaker, the DBS uses a neurostimulator to generate and deliver high-frequency electric pulses into subthalamic nucleus (STN) or globus pallidus internus (GPi) portions of the brain through extension wires and electrodes. The neurostimulator is typically programmed post-surgery by trained technicians to find the most effective signal parameters for alleviating Parkinson's symptoms.

A proposed basic design of a CDBS is as follows: the CDBS device directly interfaces with recording and stimulation electrodes. Eight recording electrodes are implanted in the motor cortex and 64 stimulating electrodes are implanted in the STN portion of the brain. The 64-channel point-controllable stimulation enables the formation of various stimulus patterns for the most effective treatment of Parkinson's symptoms. The collected neural signals from the embedded microelectrodes should be conditioned using eight front-end low-noise neural amplifiers (LNAs). Due to the low-level amplitude of the neural spikes, integrated pre-amplifiers are sometimes used to amplify the small signals before the data conversion. The front-end design needs to be low noise to guarantee the signal integrity.

The front-end band-pass LNAs typically have a gain on the order of 100 and the LNA input design needs to minimize 1/f noise. A switched capacitor technique can be used for resistor emulation and 1/f noise reduction. The switched-capacitor circuit modulates the signal so that 1/f noise may be reduced to below thermal noise. The switched-capacitor amplifying filter performs well in recording neural spikes and field potential, simultaneously.

The LNA's are in turn multiplexed to a single high-dynamic-range logarithmic amplifier front end into an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) making analog automatic gain control unnecessary.

To cover the entire range of both small-signal neural spikes and large-signal local field potential (LFP) responses from the brain stimulation, the high-dynamic-range ADC is needed to digitize all the desired neural information. The logarithmic amplifier, used in front of the ADC, is able to achieve this needed dynamic range. Logarithmic encoding is well-suited to neural signals and is efficient, since a large dynamic range can be represented with a short word length. To save area and power consumption, the relatively large-dynamic-range ADC is used, making analog automatic gain control unnecessary.

The ADC needs a digital filter which separates the low frequency neural field potential signal from the neural spike energy. Separation of the low-frequency field potential from the higher frequency spike energy can be done with a 22-tap finite-impulse-response (FIR) Butterworth-type digital filter.

Using digital filters instead of analog or mixed-signal filters provides many advantages. First of all, a digital filter is programmable so that its operation may be adjusted without modifying hardware while generally an analog filter may be changed only by modifying the design. A digital filter is used for diplexers to separate two frequency bands of spikes and LFPs. While analog filter circuits are subject to drift and are dependent on temperature, a digital filter does not suffer from these issues, and is extremely robust with respect to both time and temperature.

The electrical stimulator generates 64 channels of biphasic charge-balanced current stimulation. A dedicated controller generates these stimulation patterns via an I/O channel to control the 64 current-steering DACs. The 64 DACs can be formed as a cascade of a single shared 2-bit coarse current DAC and 64 individual bi-directional 4-bit fine DACs or other similar configuration.

The DAC has 48 possible current values. One can use a fine ADC and a polarity switch selects the positive or negative DAC output to achieve charge-balanced bi-phasic stimulation, helping to reduce the risk of long-term tissue damage.

For the next generation of DBS and tools to help researchers understand the mystery of the brain, companies are developing the Bi-directional Brain-machine interface. This technique promises to be a major development tool in the frontier of brain research once all lab tests are completed and approved for use with human brain studies in the near future. Right now it is in preclinical research. There are no approved products yet.

The heart. "Small size", "wireless", and "non-contact" are words that could never have been associated with ECG devices in the past. New developments in electronics now enable more compact/portable designs, some that include wireless capability and even those sensors that require no physical or resistive contact with the body.

Basic functions of an ECG machine include ECG waveform display, either through LCD screen or printed paper media, and heart rhythm indication as well as simple user interface through buttons. More features, such as patient record storage through convenient media, wireless/wired transfer and 2D/3D display on large LCD screen with touch screen capabilities, are required in more and more ECG products.

Multiple levels of diagnostic capabilities are also assisting doctors and people without specific ECG training to understand ECG patterns and their indication of a certain heart condition. After the ECG signal is captured and digitized, it will be sent for display and analysis, which involves further signal processing.

Signal acquisition has a number of challenges.

Measurement of the ECG signal can be very challenging due to the presence of the large DC offset and various interference signals. This potential can be up to 300 mV for a typical electrode. The interference signals include the 50...60 Hz interference from the power artefacts due to patient movement, radio frequency interference from electro-surgery equipment, defibrillation pulses, pacemaker pulses, other monitoring equipment, etc.

Depending on the end equipment, different accuracies and bandwidth requirements will be needed in an ECG: standard monitoring needs frequencies between 0.05...30 Hz; diagnostic monitoring needs frequencies from 0.05 to 1000 Hz.

Some of the 50...60 Hz common mode interference can be cancelled with a high-input-impedance instrumentation amplifier (INA), which removes the AC line noise common to both inputs. To further reject line power noise, the signal is inverted and driven back into the patient through the right leg by an amplifier. Only a few micro amps or less are required to achieve significant CMR improvement and stay within the UL544 limit. In addition, 50 or 60Hz digital notch filters are used to reduce this interference further.

The lungs. A medical ventilator, also called respirator help or mechanical ventilator (MV), pushes air into the patient's lungs. Ventilators are used, for example, in intensive care medicine for artificial ventilation or in home care to treat sleep apnea. Modern devices use intelligent circuits to mix the gas or set a fixed or modulated speed of the fan based on the input from sensors.

Mechanical ventilators have saved many lives since their development and usage in hospitals and care institutions. Patients in intensive care units (ICU) surviving on an MV for greater duration than one week have increased risk of medical complications such as ventilator-acquired pneumonia (VAP) and nosocomial infections and are seven times likely to die in the ICU. Patients on an MV rapidly develop atrophied diaphragm muscles and will have greater difficulty of weaning from the ventilator as time goes on.

A breathing pacemaker system has been recently developed that uses radio frequency (RF) coupled receivers to transcutaneously send both power and signal. This is important because there is nothing to wear-out internally and the implant is expected to last the lifetime of any patient it is put in regardless of their age. There is also no percutaneous connection between the implanted and external components. Since the patient's skin is intact, there are no long-term issues with wound care management and no chronic infection risk.

The other key point is that the system operates on the principle of negative pressure ventilation. That is, by causing the diaphragm to contract the pressure inside the lungs becomes lower than atmospheric pressure and air is drawn in. This is physiologically correct and is how we are breathing right now. Positive pressure ventilation (whether by mask or a mechanical ventilator) pushes air in which is not natural and is associated with a high risk of VAP, or ventilator associated pneumonia. VAP is the most common reason for hospital readmissions of ventilator-dependent patients. Reducing hospital readmissions (by paying less for them through Medicare/Medicaid) is a focus of the recent healthcare reforms.

For the next generation of devices in the works, new developments and even less invasive using endovascular electrodes suitable for percutaneous (any medical procedure where access to inner organs or other tissue is done via needle-puncture of the skin, rather than by using an "open" approach where inner organs or tissue are exposed) insertion only using local anesthesia in critically ill patients, the phrenic nerves may be electrically paced to maintain diaphragm strength and resistance to fatigue, improved ventilation, and the earlier possibility of being weaned from the MV.

New commercial sensor and microcircuit innovations for hand-held devices like the iPhone, Blackberry and iPad require low cost, small size and low power. These efforts are spilling over into the biomedical electronics area and will bring more amazing solutions to improve implantables and ultimately eliminate the need for most medical implantables via non-contact stimuli and sensing devices like inductive power and data transmission and lower power RF devices.

CONTENTS

ELECTRICITY GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 3

ELECTRICITY GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION 3

About Electricity 3

About Electricity 3

How Is Electric Energy Produced? 6

How Is Electric Energy Produced? 6

Static Electricity 7

Static Electricity 7

CONTROL ENGINEERING AND ROBOTICS 9

CONTROL ENGINEERING AND ROBOTICS 9

An Overview of Control Engineering 9

An Overview of Control Engineering 9

Types of Control Systems 9

Types of Control Systems 9

History of Robotics 11

History of Robotics 11

Types of Robots 13

Types of Robots 13

Industrial Robots 14

Industrial Robots 14

Robot Components 16

Robot Components 16

Hazards of Robots to Humans 18

Hazards of Robots to Humans 18

MICROELECTRONICS 21

MICROELECTRONICS 21

Semiconductor Manufacturing 21

Semiconductor Manufacturing 21

Optoelectronic Devices 27

Optoelectronic Devices 27

Molecular Electronics 29

Molecular Electronics 29

TELECOMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES 30

TELECOMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES 30

The Future of Telecommunications 30

The Future of Telecommunications 30

Antennas 32

Antennas 32

Cellular Phones 34

Cellular Phones 34

Cell Phone Trees 36

Cell Phone Trees 36

Types of Networks 38

Types of Networks 38

INFORMATION AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES 41

INFORMATION AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES 41

Computer Memory and BIOS 41

Computer Memory and BIOS 41

What Is a Database? 43

What Is a Database? 43

How Do Touch-Screen Monitors Work? 43

How Do Touch-Screen Monitors Work? 43

Internet-Based Communications 45

Internet-Based Communications 45

IMAP Problems and Attachments 49

IMAP Problems and Attachments 49

Internet Safety Guidelines 50

Internet Safety Guidelines 50

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 54

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 54

Biomedical Engineering Overview and History 54

Biomedical Engineering Overview and History 54

Nondestructive Testing 56

Nondestructive Testing 56

Imaging Systems and Their Role in Medicine 57

Imaging Systems and Their Role in Medicine 57

History of Ultrasonics 58

History of Ultrasonics 58

How Is Ultrasound Used in NDT? 59

How Is Ultrasound Used in NDT? 59

Pacemakers: What You Should Know About Them 61

Pacemakers: What You Should Know About Them 61

Prosthetic Devices 64

Prosthetic Devices 64

Innovations in Medical Sensors 65

Innovations in Medical Sensors 65

Моина Наталья Владимировна,

Генина Юлия Борисовна,

Шульженко Татьяна Владимировна