17. Complex sentence.

In syntax, a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause (subordinating clause) is referred to as a complex sentence. The dependent clause is often introduced by a subordinate conjunction such as "which", "while" or "because".Similar to a compound sentence, Two dependent clauses and one independent, a complex sentence with a sub-clause functioning as a subject. A clefted complex sentence with a sub-clause indicating what the dummy pronoun "It" refers to. A complex sentence with a sub-clause functioning as subject complement. "Be" is a copula verb; it links the sub-clause to the subject. I ate the meal is an independent clause and which you cooked is relative clause. A sentence with a relative clause, a clause that has no function but describes its noun phrase, does not fufill the dependent clause requirement of a complex sentence. A sentence is complex only when it contains a subordinate clause which fulfills a syntactic function within the sentence. This is a complex-compound sentence with two independent clauses.

18. Clause.

In grammar, a clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate, although, in non-finite clauses, the subject is often not explicitly given. In null subject languages there may not be a subject, either explicit or implicit. A clause is either a whole sentence or in effect a sentence-within-a-sentence. Clauses are often contrasted with phrases, which do not express complete thoughts through combinations of subjects and predicates. Phrases generally do not contain verbs except as verbals (gerunds, participles, and infinitives).

22. Discourse and text. Coherence and cohesion.

Discourse is a term used in semantics as in discourse analysis. Even though each thinker had personal and incompatible conceptions of discourse, they remain two important figures in this field; Habermas trying to find the transcendent rules upon which speakers could agree on a groundworks consensus, while Foucault was developing a battle-type of discourse which opposed the classic marxist definition of ideology as part of the superstructure). In language, text is a broad term for something that contains words to express something. In linguistics a text is a communicative act, fulfilling the seven constitutive and the three regulative principles of textuality. Both speech and written language, or language in other media can be seen as a text within linguistics. In literary theory a text is the object being studied, whether it be a novel, a poem, a film, an advertisement, or anything else with a semiotic component. The broad use of the term derives from the rise of semiotics in the 1960s and was solidified by the later cultural studies of the 1980s, which brought a corresponding broadening of what it was one could talk about when talking about literature; see also discourse.Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful.Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which link various parts of a text. These relations or ties organize and, to some extent, create a text, for instance, by requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by reference to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is a surface relation and it connects together the actual words and expressions that we can see or hear.