16. Wages (заробітна плата)
In other words, professional managers generally are scarcer than ditch diggers or baby sitters.
This can be expressed in terms of supply and demand. When the level of supply is large in relation to demand, wages generally are low. When the level of supply is low in relation to demand as with managers — wages generally are high.
In most cases, the higher the level of skills, or grade of labour, the higher the average yearly wage rate.
There are, however, some cases in which the traditional theory does not explain the variations in wage rates.
In these cases, unions do not try to get higher wages for their members on the grounds that labour is in short supply relative to demand. Nor does management push for lower wages when there is a very large supply of labour. This makes the price of labour-wages hard to define.
When negotiating for wages , unions want to know the wage rates in other plants for the same kind of work and what changes have taken place or will take place in the future in the cost of living.
18 Taxs and taxation
19.Оподаткування. Типи податків
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20. TAXATION in USA
There are three types of taxes in the United States: proportional, progressive and regressive.
A proportional tax is one that imposes the same percentage rate of taxation1 on everyone, no matter what their income2. Even when income goes up, the per cent of total income paid in taxes does not change.
A progressive tax is one that imposes a higher percentage rate of taxation of people with high incomes than on those with low incomes.
A regressive tax is one that imposes a higher percentage rate of taxation on low incomes than on high incomes.
A sales tax is a general tax levied on consumer purchases of nearly all products. It is added to the final price paid by the consumer.
The sales tax generally is a very effective means of getting revenue for states and cities.
A major source of revenue is the property tax — a tax on real property and tangible or intangible personal property. Real property includes land, buildings and anything else permanently attached to them.
21. Taxation in gb
In order to have an effective tax system, government must have criteria or standards. One such criterion is that a tax yields enough revenue.
A second criterion is clarity. Tax laws should be written so that both the taxpayer and tax-collector can understand them. This is not an easy task but people seem to be more willing to pay taxes1, when they understand them. A third criterion is ease of administration. A tax should be easy to collect. It should not require a large enforcement staff, and it should be designed so that citizens find it hard to avoid.
In general taxes are based chiefly on two principles: the Benefit Principle3 and the Ability-to-Pay Principle4.
The Benefit Principle of taxation is based on two ideas. First, those who benefit from government services should be the ones to pay for them. Second, people should pay taxes in proportion to the amount of services or benefits they receive.
The Ability-to-Pay Principle of taxation says that people should be taxed according to their ability to pay, no matter what benefits or services they receive. This principle is based on three things. First it is not possible to measure benefits, derived from government spending. Second, people with higher incomes suffer less discomfort than people with lower incomes even if they pay higher taxes. Finally, the only means most people have of paying taxes is the income they earn.