- •1. Morphology and syntax as part of grammar. Units of grammar, their functions and types of relations between them in language and speech.
- •2. Grammatical meaning and grammatical form. Means of form-building. Synthetic and analytical forms.
- •3. Structure of words. Grammatically relevant types of morphemes.
- •4. Grammatical categories. Method of opposition (a.I. Smirnitsky).
- •5. Parts of speech as lexico-grammatical classes of words. 3 principles of classifying words into parts of speech.
- •6. Morphological and syntactico-distributional classifications of words into parts of speech (h.Sweet, o.Jespersen, Ch. Fries.)
- •7. Notional and functional classes of words.
- •8. The category of number of the Engliss noun.
- •9. The category of case of the English noun.
- •10. The category of article determination.
- •11. Adjective. The category of degrees of comparison.
- •12. The category of tense.
- •13. The category of order.
- •14. The category of aspect.
- •15. The category of voice.
- •16. The category of mood.
- •17. The dual nature of non-finite forms of the verb. Morphological categories of verbals.
- •18. Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of representation.
- •19. Phrase. Principles of classification (h.Sweet, o.Jespersen, l.Bloomfield)
- •20. Classification of phrases according to the types of syntactic relations between the constituents.
- •21. Predicativity. Predication. Constructions with secondary predication.
- •22. Syntactic structure of the claus (simple sentence). The model of the members of the sentence.
- •23. Structural models of sentence analysis. Distributional model and types of distribution. Ic-model.
- •24. Transformational model of sentence analysis. Types of transformation.
- •26. Communicative structure of the sentence.
- •27. Functions of word order in English and types of inversion.
- •28. Principles of classification of simple sentences.
- •29. Compound sentence. Logico-semantic relations between clauses.
- •30. Complex sentence. Structural and functional classification.
28. Principles of classification of simple sentences.
Definitions. Logical: A sentence is a proposition expressed by words. A proposition is the semantic invariant of all the members of modal and communicative paradigms of sentences and their transforms. But besides sentences which contain propositions there are interrogative and negative sentences. Speech is emotional. There is no one to one relationship. Then a sentence can be grammatically correct, but from the point of view of logic it won’t be correct, true to life (Water is a gas). Laws of thinking are universal but there are many languages. Grammar and Logic don’t coincide.
Structural: A sentence is a subject-predicate structure. Grammatical subject can only be defined in terms of the sentence. Moreover the grammatical subject often does not indicate what we are “talking about” (The birds have eaten all the fruit. It is getting cold). Besides, this definition leaves out verbless sentences. There are one-member sentences. They are non-sentences? Conclusion – a sentence is a structural scheme.
Phonological: A sentence is a flow of speech between 2 pauses. But speech is made up of incomplete, interrupted, unfinished, or even quite chaotic sentences. Speech is made up of utterances but utterances seldom correspond to sentences.
Thus, it is more preferable to describe a sentence than to define it. The main peculiar features of the sentence are:
- integrity,
- syntactic independence,
- grammatical completeness,
- semantic completeness,
- communicative completeness,
- communicative functioning,
- predicativity,
- modality,
- intonational completeness.
Principles of classification of simple sentences. According to the purpose of the utterance: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. Prof. Ilyish: before dividing sentences into 3 classes we should divide them into emotional and non-emotional and within emotional we can establish 4 classes.
As to their structure:
1) simple (sentence with only one predication);
2) composite (sentence with more than one predication):
- compound (composite sentence with coordinated clauses);
- (composite sentence containing subordinated clauses);
3) two-member (sentence with full predicate) and one- member
4) extended (sentence containing some words besides the predication), unextended (sentence containing only subject and predicate) and contracted (sentence with several subjects to one predicate or several predicates to one subject);
5) elliptical (incomplete)
As to their cathegories.
According to the grammatical (syntactical) cathegory of presentation: statement, question.
According to the cathegory of information: affirmation, negation.
According to the cathegory of expressiveness: emphatic, non-emphatic.
29. Compound sentence. Logico-semantic relations between clauses.
Coordinate clauses are units of equivalent syntactic status. Each of them has the force of an independent statement (proposition).
Main types of logico-semantic relations between coordinate clauses are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causative, consecutive. They can be also found between simple sentences. This has given cause to some scholars to deny the existence of a compound sentence as a special structural type and treat it as a sequence of simple sentences. This idea is usually rejected, as a compound sentence is a semantic, grammatical and intonational unity. Each coordinate clause functions as part of this unity.
As coordination reflects the logical sequence of thought, the order of coordinate clauses is usually fixed: He came at 5 and we had dinner together.
The opening clause is most independent structurally, the following clauses may be to a certain extent dependent on the first clause - they may be elliptical, may contain anaphoric pronouns, etc.
Coordinating conjunctions and meanings rendered by them are described in Practical Grammar.