The First Russian Woman-Scientist

The outstanding Russian mathematician, Sophia Kovalevskaya, lived and worked in the second half of the 19th century. It was the period of Russia's most remarkable advancement in science and culture.

Sophia was born in Moscow on January 15, 1850 to a well-off family of anartillery general, Korvin-Krukovsky. When she was only twelve she surprised her teacher by suggesting a new solution for the determination of the ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circumference.

In 1866, Sophia and her elder sister were taken to St. Petersburg where Sophia was allowed to go on with her studies. But, as women were not permitted to attend public lectures, she was obliged to read privately.

In 1868 she married Vladimir Kovalevsky and soon they left for Vienna where she began to study physics at the University. But she wouldn't stop at that. Soon Sophia made up her mind to go to Heidelberg University. There she could study under such scholars as Helmholz and Bunzen, as her intention was to take examinations and get a degree (Ph. D).

In 1870 the Kovalevskys went to Berlin. During the four years spent in Berlin, Sophia succeeded not only in covering the University course but also in writing 3 dissertations, for which the University of Gottinggen granted her a Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in absentia.¹

Some years later the Kovalevskys returned to St. Petersburg. Despite the efforts of Mendeleyev, Butlerov and Chebyshev, Sophia Kovalevskaya, an outstanding scientist already, could not get any position at the University and was obliged to turn to journalism. But as she had made up her mind to take her Magister's Degree, she returned to Berlin to complete her work on the refraction of light in crystals.

In 1888 she achieved the greatest of her successes, winning the highest prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences for the solution of a complicated problem: to perfect in one important point the theory of the movement of a solid body about an immovable point. The prize was doubled as recognition of the unusual merits of her work.

In 1889 Sophia Kovalevskaya was awarded another prize, this time by the Swedish Academy of Sciences. Soon in spite of her being² the only woman-lecturer in Sweden, she was elected professor of mathematics and held the post until her death.

Unfortunately, Sophia Kovalevskaya died at the age of 41 on February 10, 1891, just as she had attained the height of her fame and had won recognition even in her own country where she was elected member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

Notes

1 in absentia	– заочно;
2 in spite of her being	– не дивлячись на те, що вона була.

Industry and agriculture of the u. K.

In the past English industrial prosperity¹ rested on a few important products, such as textiles, coal and heavy machinery. Now the U. K. has a great variety² of industries, for example heavy and light industry, chemical, aircraft, electrical, automobile and many other industries. The United Kingdom is considered³ one of the world's major manufacturing⁴ nations. Now high technology industries are more developed than heavy engineering. Heavy engineering and other traditional industries have experienced a certain decline.

Certain areas are traditionally noted for various types of industries. For instance, Newcastle is famous for coal industry, the county of Lancashire for its textile industry. The Midlands, or the central counties of England, are famous for the production of machinery, coal, motor cars and chemicals. In recent times regional industrial distinctions have become less clear as more and more new factories are built in the different parts of the country. Speaking about the cities of the United Kingdom the first mention should be made of London, the capital of the U. K. It is a big port on the River Thames, a major commercial, industrial centre.

Leeds is a centre of clothing industry⁵ producing woolen articles⁶. Glasgow is a major port on the River Clyde where shipbuilding industry is developed. Liverpool on the River Mersey is a flour milling⁷ and engineering⁸ centre. Birmingham is an iron and steel centre. Manchester is famous for textiles manufacturing.

Three-quarters of the United Kingdom's land is dedicated to agriculture. About two per cent of the population of the United Kingdom are engaged⁹ in agriculture, but the yields¹⁰ of English farms and pastures¹¹ are very high. Wheat, barley, oats and potatoes are the most important crops grown. Sheep, cattle and pigs are the most numerous types of livestock¹². Sheep is a source of both wool for textile industry and mutton for food industry. Mutton is the best liked English meat.

Words

1prosperity	– розквіт;
2variety	– розмаїття;
3to consider	– розглядати;
4manufacturing	– промисловість;
5clothing industry	– швейна промисловість;
6woolen articles	– вовняні вироби;
flour 7flour milling	– борошно; – той, що виробляє борошно;
8engineering	– машинобудування;
9to be engaged in something	– бути зайнятим чим-небудь;
10yields	– збір плодів, врожаю;
11pasture	– пасовище;
12livestock	– худоба.