6. Assimilation of borrowings

All the changes that borrowed words undergo may be divided into 2 groups:

1) Changes specific of borrowed words only. For example, the consonant combinations [pn], [ps], [pt] in the words: pneumatics, psychology, Ptolemy of Greek origin were simplified into [n], [s], [t] since they were never used in English, in the initial position. For the same reason the initial [ks] is changed into [z] as in Gr. Xylophone [‘zailefoun]^xvi, Xerox.

2) Changes that are characteristic of both borrowed and native words. For example, early borrowing [straekt] (strect in Modern English), disk (Mn. Eng. dish) were a adopted to the norms in Middle English.

Phonetic assimilation means changes in sound form add stress. For instance, the long [e] and [ε] in recent French borrowings, quite strange to English speech rendered with the help of [ei]-communique, cafe, etc. The German spitz [spits], was turned into English [spits].

Grammatical assimilation -when borrowed words are acquired new grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with the other English words: cf. Rus. sputnik,-s,sputnik's, etc. But, considerable group of words adopted in the 16th century preserved their original plural inflexion: phenomenon-phenomena (L.),addendum-addenda (L.),parenthesis— parentheses,(Gr.). Others have 2 plural forms vacuum (L.)- vacua, vacuums; etc.

Lexical assimilation - when semantic structure of the borrowed word undergoes some changes (it takes 50-100 years). Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or 2 of the meaning. Thus, the words cargo and cask^xvii, highly, polysemantic in Spanish were adopted in one of the meaning "the goods carried in a ship" and "a barrel for holding liquids" respectfully".

7) Foreign borrowings may be divided into 3 groups according to their character.

I. Denizens are words taken from a foreign language with a transformation of the foreign sound and spelling into native forms. They are not foreign words, but have been naturalized into native sound and spelling.

Many Scandinavian words, for instance, are denizens, as: get, give, egg, take, sky, skin, skilletc.

Sometimes denizens conform to native words even in adoption of English affix: suffix or prefix, e.g.

poorness (French root with English suffix); ungracious (French root with English prefix and suffix); eventful (a Latin root event + an English suffix -ful); talkative (an English root talk + a Latin suffix -ative)

Hybrids are also denizens, because they are words made up of two parts, each from a different language, such as:

sociology (a French element socio + a Greek element -logy); hydroplane (a Greek element hydro + a Latin element plane)

II. Aliens are words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling. They are usually considered as foreign words.

The following French borrowings are aliens.

Automobile, coup de main, coup d’édat , élite, trou-de-loup, bêche-de-mer

III. The so-called barbarisms are words from other languages used

by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any

way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents, e.g.: Italian

'ciao' ('good-bye'), the French 'affiche' for 'placard', 'carte blanche'

('freedom of action'), 'faux pas' ('false step').

8) 1.Early Latin Loans. Those are the words which came into English through the language of Anglo-Saxon tribes. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilisation and had adopted several Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilisation long before the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain (cup, kitchen, mill, port, wine).

2.Later Latin Borrowings. To this group belong the words which penetrated the English vocabulary in the sixth and seventh centuries, when the people of England were converted to Christianity (priest, bishop, nun, candle).

3.The third period of Latin includes words which came into English due to two historical events: the Norman conquest in 1066 and the Renaissance or the Revival of Learning. Some words came into English through French but some were taken directly from Latin (major, minor, intelligent, permanent).

4.The Latest Stratum of Latin Words. The words of this period are mainly abstract and scientific words (nylon, molecular, vaccine, phenomenon, vacuum).

The Renaissance. In England, as in all European countries-significant developments in science, art and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Hence, there occurred a considerable number of Latin and Greek borrowings. In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st с. В. С.), the Renaissance ones were rarely concrete names. They were mostly abstract words (e. g. major, minor, filial moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). Greek Renaissance borrowings (e. g. atom, cycle, ethics, esthete).The Renaissance was a period of extensive cultural contacts between the major European states. Therefore, it was only natural that new words also entered the English vocabulary from other European languages.

9) French Borrowings

1066. With the famous Battle of Hastings, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest. The epoch can well be called eventful not only in national, social, political and human terms, but also in linguistic terms. England became a bi-lingual country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. Here is a very brief list of examples of Norman French borrowings.

Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power.

Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.

Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.

Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil.

Everyday life was not unaffected by the powerful influence of French words. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e. g. table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc.

1.Early loans - 12th - 15th century

2.Later loans - beginning from the 16th century.

The Early French borrowings are simple short words, naturalised in accordance with the English language system (state, power, war, pen, river) Later French borrowings can be identified by their peculiarities of form and pronunciation (regime, police, ballet, scene, bourgeois).

10) Scandinavian borrowings

Scandinavian borrowings

End 8th - middle 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions =>influenced vocabulary. Early Scandinavian borrowings: to call, to take, to cast, to die, law, husband (hus + bondi, i. e. "inhabitant of the house"), window (vindauga, i. e. "the eye of the wind"), ill, loose, low, weak. Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination. E. g. sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt.

Certain English words changed their meanings under the influence of Scandinavian words of the same root. So, the old English “bread” which meant "piece" acquired its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian “braud”. The old English “dream” which meant "joy" assimilated the meaning of the Scandinavian “draumr’’.

11) Etymological Doublets

Etymological doublets - words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape and in meaning, e.g. shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is native, and skirt – Scan-n borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing. They may enter the vocabulary by different routes. Some of these pairs, like shirt and skirt, consist of a native word and a borrowed word: shrew, n. (E.) — screw, n. (Sc.).Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are historically descended from the same root: senior (Lat.) — sir (Fr.), canal (Lat.) — channel (Fr.), captain (Lat.) — chieftan (Fr.).Still others were borrowed from the same language twice, but in different periods: corpse [ko:ps] (Norm. Fr.) — corps [ko:] (Par. Fr.), travel (Norm. Fr.) — travail (Par. Fr.), cavalry (Norm. Fr.) — chivalry (Par. Fr.), gaol (Norm. Fr.) — jail (Par. Fr.). Etymological triplets occur rarer, but here are at least two examples: hospital (Lat.) — hostel (Norm. Fr.) — hotel (Par. Fr.), to capture (Lat.) — to catch (Norm. Fr.) — to chase (Par. Fr.).

International words

The words is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one, usually convey concepts, significant in the field of communication. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are international, e. g. philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology. There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist. Political terms frequently occur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism. 20th c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of new international words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, the English language also contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages. # sports terms: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc. Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport their names too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries, become international: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.

A hybrid word is a word which etymologically has one part derived from one language and another part derived from a different language. The most common form of hybrid word in English is one which combines etymologically Latin and Greek parts. Since many prefixes and suffixes in English are of Latin or Greek etymology, it is straightforward to add a prefix or suffix from one language to an English word that comes from a different language, thus creating a hybrid word. E.g. automobile, claustrophobia, liposuction, neuroscience, polyamory, sociology, television.

12) The most characteristic feature of English is usually said to be its mixed character. Many linguists consider foreign influence, especially that of French, to be the most important factor in the history of English. In linguistic literature the term native is conventionally used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles from the continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes — the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The term borrowing is used in linguistics to denote the process of adopting words from other languages and also the result of this process, the language material itself. It has already been stated that not only words, but also word-building affixes were borrowed into English (as is the case with -able, -ment, -ity, etc.). The words: 30% - native words (appeared in 5^th century); 60-70% - Indo-European +Common Germanic (they can’t be dated, too old).

False Etymology is the historical development often brings about indistinctness of the words etymological meaning. The words are wrongly associated with ultimate source, but the word may have come through some intermediate language. In many cases words lose the etymological clarity. E.g. buttery. Came from Latin –batarea, but was wrongly associated with English butter.

Folk etymology is change in a word or phrase over time resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more familiar one. E.g. cockroach was borrowed from Spanish cucaracha but was folk-etymologized as cock + roach; crayfish from Middle English crevis (from Anglo-Norman creveis), due to assimilation with fish; island was respelled from iland (although without any pronunciation change), from Old English ī(e)gland after ī(e)g "island" became obsolete. The new spelling was evidently based on an analysis of island as isle-land, from isle (an Old French word, going back to Latin insula).