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and by in-plant trainers, and so on. Some of these intervention techniques were described in Chapter 4.

Another important feature of training provided in connection with consulting is that it generates interest in further training and self-development. Sound management will stimulate and nurture this interest, which may actually be the most lasting contribution of many consulting assignments.

10.4Some tactical guidelines for introducing changes in work methods

In this section we summarize a few practical guidelines on how to introduce new work methods and help people to master them without major difficulties. Here again, the purpose of the guidelines is not to provide universal recipes for handling any situation, but to alert the consultant to what might happen and suggest in what direction to search for a remedy. The guidelines that follow should be read in conjunction with Chapter 4.

Tactic 1: The best method

It was mentioned in Chapter 4 that the process of change involves (i) identification with the change, and (ii) internalization of the change. Whether these phases occur in sequence or simultaneously is not important. The essential point is that they require commitment, involvement or participation by the person doing the changing. The change must be tested by the individual as he or she moves from the general (identification) to the specific (internalization).

Therefore the people concerned in the change process should be involved as early as possible, so that these two vital elements can be comprehensively covered. However, a strong note of warning is offered as to how participation might be achieved. Apart from attending meetings or brainstorming sessions for specific purposes (such as to build up a data bank of ideas for the creative solution of problems), individuals should not start using their own new methods for performing tasks if the idea is to develop a best method for general use. Studies have shown that where individuals are encouraged to adopt their own approaches and the best method or approved solution is later imposed, those people will exhibit some conformity to the new proposal but will still diverge significantly from the approved method in following their own.

However, where groups are provided with a best method or approved approach in the first instance, individuals will subsequently vary only insignificantly from the set procedures. Diagrammatically, these results are shown in figure 10.1.

In case 1 the end result is that individuals perform in a manner significantly different from the approved method, although not quite as widely different as

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Figure 10.1 Comparison of the effects on eventual performance when using individualized versus conformed initial approaches

Case 1: Subsequent behaviour diverges significantly from the conformed approach when individualized approaches are used prior to the introduction of the conformed approach.

Note: Although subsequent behaviour usually differs significantly from the conformed approach, it is not as widely divergent as the initial individualized approaches.

Case 2: Subsequent behaviour diverges very little from the conformed approach if no opportunity is provided for individual experimentation prior to the introduction of the conformed approach.

Note: Subsequent behaviour is significantly less divergent from the conformed approach in case 2 than in case 1.

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●improvement using spaced practice is quicker, i.e. the performance curve is sharper;

●improvement using spaced practice is greater, i.e. the performance curve is higher;

●improvement lasts longer, i.e. the decay or extinction curve is shallower.

These performance curves will almost invariably be obtained where improvement in skill can be measured as a result of practice or rehearsal. Thus the consultant is well advised to consider introducing change gradually using relatively short practice sessions rather than relying on one great training input.

Tactic 3: Rehearsal

Where skill is involved, results constantly improve with spaced practice, provided, of course, that the correct procedures are followed. As shown in figure 10.2, performance continues to improve with practice until a ceiling or plateau is reached. Continued practice is then required to maintain this level of performance. Constant practice can eventually lead to a condition known as over-learning, in which routine and procedures become virtually automatic reactions.

The consultant must therefore make provision for appropriate training and practice sessions (rehearsals) when introducing new approaches.

Tactic 4: Moving from the known to the unknown

There is considerable evidence that the knowledge of a prior skill can have either a positive or negative transfer effect on the acquisition of a new skill.

As mentioned earlier, the consultant is usually faced at the beginning with the need for an “unfreezing” phase, designed to break down old habits. Surprising as it may seem, to facilitate new learning it is usually more effective to have the learner in an “anxious” rather than a “comfortable” state, because he or she is then more likely actively to seek information to reduce the level of anxiety. In a “comfortable” state, the learner is more likely to select information which will prolong that state, to reinforce old habits rather than seek new approaches.

The consultant can use this attention-rousing device by showing that the “known” procedures are no longer suitable for present purposes. If we move directly to the introduction of new methods without first breaking down established practices, there is a grave risk of negative transfer effects taking place.

When introducing a totally new approach, however, there may be some benefit in building it on an appropriate existing procedure. In short, when introducing change, move from the known to the unknown (new approach).

Tactic 5: Setting demanding but realistic goals

According to S. W. Gellerman, “stretching” is desirable when goals are being established.2 By this he means that targets should be set a little higher than

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would normally be expected. D. C. McClelland supports this notion and adds that the goals should be realistic and neither “too easy” nor “impossible”, but such that a feeling of achievement can be experienced when they are reached.3

There is ample evidence to show that high expectations coupled with genuine confidence in a prestigious person often result in higher performance and productivity. This effect can become cumulative – an individual’s improved performance encourages him or her to assume more responsibility and so creates greater opportunities for achievement, growth and development. Conversely, low expectations may lead to low performance and substandard results which, in turn, lead to loss of credibility, distrust and scepticism.

When introducing change, the consultant has to ensure that all those involved readily understand what this means in terms of goals. Goals should be:

●quantitative (able to be measured in numerical terms);

●qualitative (able to be described specifically);

●time-phased (provision of commencement dates and expected duration before final attainment).

It is important to determine correctly the time by which a new goal has to be achieved. Because attitudes and work habits take a long time to form, time must be allowed for replacing them by new ones. Unless there is a perceived dramatic need to institute a change immediately, the process may take longer than originally expected.

Tactic 6: Respecting the absorptive capacity

People differ tremendously in their capacity to absorb new information and their ability to undertake new activities. Many writers have argued that there is a maximum number of “units of information” which an individual can absorb and process at any one time. In this connection G. W. Miller refers to the “magic number seven, plus or minus two” (to allow for variations in individual capacity).4 By confining information inputs to the lower end of the scale (namely five), the consultant can avoid overtaxing any of the audience, although he may cause some degree of impatience among the most receptive.

The information can first be presented as a whole and then broken down into subunits for more detailed study, or it can be built up gradually by synthesis of the individual parts. The method chosen will depend on the nature of the problem, the composition of the audience and the consultant’s personal preference.

During the introductory and concluding phases of an information session, it is as well to provide a summary of the complete presentation. There is support for the idea that the attention of an audience is at its highest level shortly after the commencement of a session and again shortly before its conclusion.

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