Архитектура Строительство_Ин Яз

cradle — колыбель

to contribute — вносить вклад to articulate — выделять

I. Complete the following sentences.

1.Stylistically this began with an onslaught on ...

a)Romanesque architecture

b)Greek architecture

c)Baroque architecture

2.The excavations of classical sites were held in Italy, Greece, and

a)Asia Minor

b)Egypt

c)India

3.The projects produced by the winners are characterized by ...

a)rich floral decorations

b)stained glass windows

c)a preference for blank walls

4.There were also the strict geometric organization and ...

a)simplicity of geometric forms

b)spatially complex compositions

c)massive walls and round arches

5.Neoclassicism emerged throughout Europe and in ...

a)Africa

b)Asia

c)America

61

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE TURN OF THE CENTURIES

Warming up

1.When did Art Nouveau develop?

2.What outstanding architects of Art Nouveau do you know?

3.How is this style called in Russia?

Read the text and speak on the aesthetics of Art Nouveau.

ART NOUVEAU

An individual and highly romantic reaction to the currents of eclecticism and academic classicism (Ecole des Beaux-Arts in late 19th century architecture) Art Nouveau was a diverse phenomenon which affected most of Europe and, some historians argue, even North America between 1890 and 1910. It was known at the time under a variety of rubrics — for instance, in England it was the "modern style", in Germany it was called the Ju-gendstil, in France it was known variously as the "style nouille" (noodle style), "style Guimard" (after Henry Guimard, who designed the decorative entrance to the Paris Metro Stations in 1899), or Art Nouveau. The Austrians named it Secessionsstil; in Italy it was the "stile Liberty" or "stile floreale", and in Spain "modernisme".

Often referred to simply as the style 1900, Art Nouveau expresses an essentially decorative trend that aims to highlight the ornamental value of the curved line, which may be floral in origin (Belgium, France) or geometric (Scotland, Austria). This line gives rise to two-dimensional, slender, undulating and invariably asymmetrical forms. The applied arts were the first to be affected (textiles by William Morris, 1880; wood-engraved title page to Wren's City Churches by Arthur H. Mackmurdo, 1883; vases by Emile Galle, 1884; ornamental lettering by Fernand Khnopff and Georges Lemmen, 1890-1; mural tapestry The Angels' Vigil by Henry van deVelde; 1893; furniture by de Gustave SerrurierBovy, 1891).

Among the most characteristic architectural products of Art Nouveau, widely differing in purpose and plastic expression, were: the houses built by Paul Hankar in Brussels (1893—1900); works of Willem Kromhout (1864-1940), Th. Sluyterman (1863-1931) and L. A. H. Wolf in the Netherlands; Guimard's Castel Beranger (1897—1898), entrances to Metro stations and the auditorium of the Humbert de Romans building (1902, destroyed) in Paris; Horta's Maison du Peuple (1896—1899, destroyed) and the former Hotel Solvay (1895—1900) in Brussels.

In Russia Art Nouveau is represented in the works of F. Shekhtel, (S. Ryabushinsky's Mansion (1900), the building for the newspaper "Utro Rossii" (Moscow, 1907).

All these works are the result of an attempt to put an end to imitations of past styles; in its place is offered a florid type of architecture, which exploits craft

62

skills, using coloured materials (faience cabochons, stoneware, terracotta panels, stained glass), exotic veneers, moulded stonework, grilles, balconies, and tapered brackets in wrought iron; and burgeoning with asymmetrical door — and windowframes, bow and horseshoe windows, etc.

In the later phases of Art Nouveau, facade decoration was accompanied by a powerful plastic treatment of the whole building, either by the dramatic accentuation of individual parts of the structure (Glasgow Art School, 1898-1909, by Mackintosh) or by the sculptural modelling of the whole building mass (Werkbundtheater, Cologne, 1914 by van de Velde; Casa Mila, Barcelona, 1905— 1910, by Gaudi).

Art Nouveau was first and foremost an aesthetic undertaking, based on social theories and inspired by aesthetes such as Ruskin, Morris and Oscar Wilde. It was born of a reaction to the rise of industrialism.

Distinguished architects of the Art Nouveau style, such as Mackintosh, Behrens and the Viennese masters became pioneers of modern architecture, it is true, but with their forward-looking buildings they overstepped the frontiers which the style had imposed upon its adherents.

Vocabulary

current — поток, течение diverse — разнообразный to argue — спорить

rubric — название, заголовок instance — пример

noodle — лапша entrance — вход

to refer — иметь отношение, относиться

to highlight — выдвигать на первый план; придать большое значение two-dimensional — двухмерный

undulating — волнистый

the applied art — прикладное искусство to engrave — гравировать

former — бывший attempt — попытка to offer — предлагать craft — ремесло

stoneware — керамические изделия stained glass — витраж

veneer — шпон; однослойная фанера; (кирпичная) облицовка wrought iron — ковкая мягкая сталь

horseshoe — подкова treatment — обработка to inspire — вдохновлять

to impose — налагать (обязательство) adherent — сторонник

63

I Choose the right sentence.

1.Art Nouveau was a reaction to the currents of eclecticism and academic classicism at the turn of the 19th century.

a)Art Nouveau was a reaction against Neo-Gothic.

b)It was a reaction to the currents of eclecticism and academic classicism in the late 19th century.

2.This style has a lot of rubrics.

a)It is often referred to as "style 1900".

b)It was the "modern style" in England.

c)It is known under a variety of titles.

3.The curved line gives rise to invariably asymmetrical forms.

a)A florid type of architecture exploits craft skills.

b)The whiplash line creates constantly asymmetrical forms.

4.Fyodor Shekhtel is the main representative of Art Nouveau in Russia.

a)Ryabushinsky's mansion by Fyodor Shekhtel is one the best works of Art Nouveau in Russia.

b)Mackintosh is an outstanding representative of Art Nouveau in Scotland.

5.Art Nouveau was inspired by Ruskin, Morris and Oscar Wilde.

a)The echoes of Gothic had a considerable effect on the age and emerged in some Art Nouveau works.

b)Art Nouveau was an aesthetic undertaking.

c)Ruskin, Morris and Oscar Wilde were the inspirers of Art Nouveau.

II. Complete the following sentences.

1. Art Nouveau is characterized by ... and asymmetrical forms, a) plain surfaces b) whiplash lines

c)symmetrical composition

2.This decorative trend highlights ... of the curved line,

c)ornamental value

3.It was an attempt to put an end to imitations of... styles,

c)computer technology

III. Answer the following questions. Only one variant is correct from the three choices.

1. What does Art Nouveau exploit?

a)This style exploits the effects of illusionism.

b)The artists of Art Nouveau imitate past styles.

c)It exploits craft skills using coloured materials.

2.What were the sources of Art Nouveau?

a)Increasing interest in archaeology was crucial to the emergence of Art

64

Nouveau.

b)It was inspired by such aesthetes as Ruskin, Morrison, and Oscar Wilde.

c)It adopted the ideas of Constructivism.

3.What kind of reaction was Art Nouveau born of?

a)It began with an onslaught on Baroque architecture.

b)It was the reaction to the ban on human representation.

c)It was born of a reaction to the rise of industrialism.

4.What were the decorative elements of this trend?

a)Art Nouveau featured exotic veneers, moulded stonework, assymmetrical door-and window frames, horseshoe windows.

b)It was characterized by unadorned exteriors and interiors.

c)The Doric order was preferred during this period.

5.Who were the greatest architects of Art Nouveau?

a)Carlo Rossi is one of the greatest representatives of the modern style.

b)August Endell, Charles R. Mackintosh and Antonio Gaudi are among those who created this style.

c)Filippo Brunelleschi is supposed to be its initiator.

65

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE 20th CENTURY

Warming-up

1.What works of Le Corbusier can you name?

2.What did Le Corbusier build in Moscow?

3.What other greatest 20th century architects do you know?

Read the text and tell about Le Corbusier's creative activity.

CHARLES EDOUARD (JEANNERET) LE CORBUSIER (1887-1966)

Le Corbusier was the dominant figure internationally in modern architecture from 1920 to 1960.

He proposed the "Modulor", a system of proportions grounded on the golden section or the Fibonacci series using the human figures as its basis, formulated the famous definition of architecture as 'the masterly correct and magnificent play of masses brought together in light'. His comparisons with engineering constructions and with modern forms of transportation were formulated into such oftmisunderstood postulates as 4he house is a machine for living in' and that it should be as practically constructed as a typewriter. By this he meant not a mechanistic 'machine aesthetic1 but rather complete rationality in plan, capacity for serialproduction and function.

His 'five points for a new architecture': the pilotis, roof terraces, free plan, continuous window strips and free facade composition were to be the essential elements of the new aesthetic.

Le Corbusier's works have become monuments of modern architecture with their general independence of terrain as well as a rich variety of interior and exterior spaces achieved by means of 'double-height rooms, gallery floors, bridges and ramps with views into the interior as well as 'framed' views looking out, all expressions of a genuine luxury in architecture.

Le Corbusier's long period as a leading figure in modern architecture — for nearly half a century — was unique among architects of his time and is, finally, a reflection of his capacity to endow architecture with an expression which evokes the spirit of his epoch. In this sense he was at once the 'terrible simplificateur' in the tradition of the rationalist enlightenment and a creator of forms which will endure well beyond his time.

Among his works are Villa Savoye, Poissy (1929—1931); Pavilion Su-isse, Cite Universitaire, Paris (1930-2); The Clarte apartment house in Geneva (19301932); Unite d'Habitation, Marseilles (1947-1952); the urban planning schemes for large North African and South American cities, (the 1930s); the Pilgrimage church of Notre Dame-du-Haut at Rou-champ (1950—1954); the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1961—1964); the

66

plan of the city of Chandigarh, India (1950—1951), and others.

Vocabulary oft-misunderstood — часто понимаемый неправильно capacity — способность

continuous — сплошной terrain — местность

ramp — скат, уклон, наклонная плоскость luxury — роскошь

to endow — наделять, одарять

to evoke — вызывать (восхищение) enlightenment — просвещение

to endure — выдерживать испытание временем; длиться, продолжаться

II. Complete the following sentences.

1. According to Le Corbusier, "the house should be as practically constructed as

...".

a) a TV-set b) a type-writer c) a refrigerator

2. He advanced the "Modulor" in order to determine the proportions of...

a) machines b) terrain c) building units

3.His formulas of architectural typology are: the pilotis, roof terraces, free plan, continuous window strips and ...

a)free facade composition

b)conspicuous use of decoration

c)complexity of forms

4.Le Corbusier worked out the urban planning schemes for Paris and for several large North African and ... cities.

a)South African

b)North American

67

c) South American

BRITISH ARCHITECTURE

Buildings: first impressions

What makes the look of British towns and cities distinctive? The most striking feature is the lack of blocks of flats. People prefer to live in individual houses — units with their own front doors and sometimes gardens. Perhaps this says something about the national character; a love of privacy and a lack of interest in the wider community. There is a proverb: "An Englishman's home is his castle."

Whatever the deeper reasons for it, the result is that British towns and cities are full of two or three-storey houses. Only in the 1950s and 60s did councils start building tall blocks of flats in the American style; but these have been very unpopular, and the cheaper ones are now being demolished.

Another distinctive feature of British buildings is the use of brick. Some of the oldest monuments, like Hampton Court Palace or Queens' College, Cambridge, are made of brick. It remains the favourite material for new houses today. While the rest of the world prefers concrete, for some reason the British taste is for brick, at least in smaller buildings.

British architecture

Apart from some ancient churches, the oldest buildings you will see in Britain are castles. They are dotted all over the country, with many beautiful examples in Scotland and Wales. They were first built by the Normans after their invasion of England in 1066. The Tower of London dates from about 1078. Because of the Normans' desire to control the population, they started to build castles everywhere, but especially in the more restless regions. For example, King Edward I built a series of massive castles in Wales at the end of the 13th century; his aim was to keep the lawless Welsh under English rule.

As the dominance of the English crown was established, the need for castles diminished. Then the use of gunpowder meant that they could no longer resist attack. So by the 15th century the castle-building age was over. Many Scottish castles are from a later period, but these are not military buildings; they are aristocratic family houses that imitated older styles.

Since the Middle Ages, architecture in Britain (as in most of Europe) has been based on three major styles: Gothic, classical, and modern. The great early cathedrals and churches are in Gothic style - tall, with pointed arches and highly decorated; they are covered in sculptures of people, animals and plants. The buildings are fantastic engineering achievements., constructed with very little machinery and designed by architects whose names have been forgotten. The tallest spire in Britain, at Salisbury Cathedral, is 123 metres high and was built in the 1330s. It is incredible that such size and perfection were achieved without a single crane or computer!

After the Gothic period, architectural fashion looked back to the classical

68

age of Greece and Rome for its inspiration. So we see columns and triangular pediments as on Greek temples; round arches, domes and perfect Latin lettering as on Roman public buildings. Many of the finest London churches are in this style; St Paul's Cathedral (built by Sir Christopher Wren between 1675 and 1710) is the biggest and most celebrated, but there are many more all over the city.

Not only churches were in the classical style. Rich aristocrats built huge and impressive houses surrounded by parkland; they are on such a grand scale that it is difficult to imagine that they were once private homes, but of course they had dozens and sometimes hundreds of servants.

Many of the most beautiful parts of British cities consist of houses in this style. The period of kings George I to George IV is known as the Georgian period, and cities such as London, Edinburgh, Bristol and Bath still today have large numbers of elegant Georgian houses, which give the streets a striking sense of unity and design.

In the 19th century, during the Victorian age (taking its name from Queen Victoria), architects went back to medieval Gothic ideas for their inspiration. At first sight it is sometimes difficult to tell whether a Victorian church is 100 or 500 years old! At the same time, classical styles did not disappear

altogether. In fact, there was a "Battle of the Styles" between classical and Gothic. The British Museum (1823) was a victory for the classical, and the Houses of Parliament (1836) for the Gothic. There was also debate about the use of iron and steel: should these new materials be visible, as in the new bridges and railway stations, or hidden, as in the Natural History Museum, London, where the metal frame is covered by coloured brick and stonework?

From the 1920s on, new ideas were transforming art and music, and architecture, too, was caught up in the modernising culture. People wanted buildings which were not just copies of the past. Having abandoned both classical and Gothic styles, the challenge was to create - to invent -something really new. Luckily, this change in attitude came at the same time as exciting new engineering materials were becoming available.

With concrete and steel together, and new types of glass, it was possible to escape from the traditional forms. For the first time in history, architects were free to make almost any shapes they liked.

Richard Rogers

British architecture is going through a dynamic period, with several big international names such as James Stirling and Norman Foster. Perhaps the architect best known in Britain is the designer of the Millennium Dome, Richard Rogers. He too, has carried out many major projects abroad. He was responsible for the airport in Marseille, numerous office complexes in Japan and the USA, and (with an Italian, Renzo Piano) for the great Centre Pompidou in Paris. In his own country he has worked on many smaller projects, such as the flats shown in the photograph on the right. But he is best known for the most spectacular modern building in the financial centre of London - the Lloyd's Building. Although it contains a very conservative insurance business, and is in the oldest part of

69

London, it is an extraordinary and daring piece of modern architecture - all steel and glass, with pipes and lifts on the outside.

Richard Rogers is also modern in his philosophy. He is extremely concerned about the environmental aspects of design: can a building use solar power, can it make the most of natural light, and can it function without wasteful air conditioning? He is keen to make London a better place to live in, with less traffic and more spaces in which people can enjoy city life. Talking about famous parts of the city like Oxford Circus, Parliament Square and Marble Arch, he says: "They are dangerous, degrading, inhuman and unnecessary spaces where vehicles have replaced people, and the servant has become the master. ... clean, live-work cities based upon the bicycle and upon walking, are absolutely possible." Happily, the government is beginning to follow Rogers' advice and the future of London is looking brighter; there are, for example, plans for a car-free Trafalgar Square.

Topics for discussion.

Which are more common in your area – houses or flats? Which do you prefer?

Do you enjoy walking round old buildings such as castles? If so, why?

Is the architecture in your country very different from that in Britain?

Why do you think architectural styles change from time to time?

Do you take notice of new buildings around you? Which ones do you admire?

What should be the priorities of architects today – beauty, environmental factors or what?

70