Архитектура Строительство_Ин Яз

The ancient Egyptians discovered how to cut stone for building purposes. They erected temples, palaces and huge tombs. The greatest tomb is the stone *pyramid of Khufu1, king of Egypt. The ancient Egyptians often erected their huge constructions to conmemorate their kings or pharaons.

The ancient Greeks also understood the art of building with cut stone, and their buildings were beautiful as well as useful. They often used pillars, partly for supporting the roofs and partly for decoration. Parts of these ancient buildings can still be seen today in Greece.

Whereas the ancient Greeks tried to embody the idea of harmony and pure beauty in their buildings, the Roman architecture produces the impression of greatness, might, and practicalness.

The Romans were great bridge, harbour and road builders. In road works the Romans widely used timber piles. They also erected aqueducts, reservoirs, water tanks, etc. Some of their constructions are used till now. It is known that the manufacture of lime is one of the oldest industries used by man. Lime is a basic building material used all over the world as today so in the ancient world. One of the Romans, Marcus Porcius Cato, gave an idea of a kiln for lime, pro duction: it's shape and dimensions. They are rough cylindrical or rectangular structures, built of stone in a hillside with an arched opening at the front to enable the fire to be made and the lime to be withdrawn. Such kilns were fired with wood or coal and were extremely inefficient. There are still many remains of kilns in some places of Great Britain as well as roads and the famous Hadrian Wall, which was erected to protect the Romans from the Celtic tribes in the first century A.D. Britain was a province of the Roman Empire for about four centuries. There are many things today in Britain to remind the people of the Romans: towns, roads, wells and the words.

By the way, Hadrian, the Roman emperor, was also the one who suggested the absolutely new for that time idea of building the Pantheon with a dome. He constructed it, and alongside with a number of other outstanding buildings such as the Colosseum and the Baths of Caracalla, it is still there in Rome. Many ancient buildings in Rome were designed by Hadrian as well as by other Roman emperors. In a period of 800 to 900 years the Romans developed concrete to the position of the main structural material in the empire.

It is surprising, therefore, that after the fall of the Empire, much of the great knowledge should have disappeared so completely. The knowledge of how to make durable concrete has been lost for centuries, *but mention was made of it in the writings of architects from time to time2.

Fusion of Roman and North European traditions in construction was reflected in many ways. Buildings combined the Roman arch and the steep peaked roof of Nothern Europe. Roman traditions were continued in the architectural form known as Romanesque. London Bridge, finished in 1209, took thirty-three years to build. It consisted of nineteen irregular pointed arches with its piers resting on broad foundation, which was designed *to withstand the Thames current3.

The Romanian period was followed by other periods each of which produced its own type of architecture and building materials. During the last hundred years many new methods of building have been discovered. One of the

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most recent discoveries is the usefulness of steel as a building material. Nowadays when it is necessary to have a very tall building, the frame of it is

first built in steel and then the building is completed in concrete. Concrete is an artificial kind of stone, much cheaper than brick or natural stone and much stronger than they are. The earliest findings of concrete building fragments belonging to prehistoric times were discovered in Mexico and Peru. The Egyptians in the construction of bridges, roads and town walls employed it. There are evidences that ancient Greeks also used concrete in the building purposes. The use of concrete by the ancient Romans can be traced back as far as 500 B.C. They were the first to use4 it throughout the ancient Roman Empire *on a pretty large scale5 and many constructions made of concrete remain till nowadays thus proving the long life of buildings made of concrete. Of course, it was not the concrete people use today. It consisted of mud, clay and pure lime, which were used to hold together the roughly broken stone in foundations and walls. It was the so-called "pseudo concrete": The idea of such building material might have been borrowed from the ancient Greeks as some samples of it were found in the ruins of Pompeii.

IV. Explain in English the meaning of the following words:

sun-dried mud bricks, timber piles, pseudo concrete, the ruins of Pompeii, harmony and pure beauty.

V. Make a report about the history of building ant tell it in class.

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PART II

TEXTS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

Warming-up

Who doesn't dream about travelling to Egypt? We think all the architects do. Lets have a wonderful journey.

1.What wonders of the world do you know?

2.What is the only remained wonder of the world?

3.What are the greatest monuments of Egyptian architecture?

4.Who is supposed to be the first named architect?

5.What are the periods in the history of ancient Egyptian architecture?

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

Text 1

During the Old Kingdom, the period when Egypt was ruled by the Kings of the 3rd to 6th Dynasties, artists and craftsmen were drawn to the court to work under the patronage of the king and his great nobles. Techniques of working in stone, wood, and metal made tremendous progress, demonstrat» ed by surviving large scale monuments, such as the pyramids of the 4th Dynasty and the sun temples built by the 5th-Dynasty kings. The pyramids of the 4th Dynasty are the most spectacular of all funerary works and the only remained wonder of the world. These monuments celebrated the divinity of the kings of Egypt, linking the people with the great gods of earth and sky.

This was a time when trade and the economy flourished. Craftsmen worked in the finest materials which were often brought great distances, and were able to experiment with recalcitrant stones as well as new techniques of metalworking. This enabled them by the 6th Dynasty to produce large metal figures. The earliest that survive are the copper statues of Pepi I and his son, found at Hierakonpolis. Made c. 2330 BC they are badly corroded but still impressive in their stiffly formal poses. The eyes are inlaid, and the crown and the kilt of the king, now missing, were probably originally made of gilded plaster.

During the prosperous period known as the Middle Kingdom fortresses were built to defend the southern and eastern borders, and new areas of land were brought under cultivation. Craftsmen achieved new levels of excellence. Very little architecture remains — many royal monuments were robbed for their stone in later periods — but what has survived shows great simplicity and refinement. The example is the pyramid of Sesostris I at Lisht.

The establishment of the 18th Dynasty marked the beginning of the New Kingdom and a new blossoming of the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt. Craftsmen benefited from wider contact with other civilizations, such as those of Crete and Mesopotamia, and were also able to work with imported raw materials.

The kings gave encouragement to artists and craftsmen by ordering great temples and palaces to be built throughout Egypt. The temple walls were covered with reliefs celebrating the achievements of the kings and the powers of the gods.

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The courtyards and inner sanctuaries were enriched with statuary. The most notable monuments are the Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatsheput at Deir-el- Bahari (c. 1480 BC), which had a series of pillared colonnades on three sides of three superimposed terraces linked by gigantic ramps and magnificent Great Temple at Karnak to Amon as the universal god of Egypt.

Ancient Egyptian architecture was revived under the Ptolemies, the successors of Alexander the Great, who built numerous temples of traditional style of which the finest examples that survive are the Temple of Horns at Etfu and the temples on the islands of Philae (c. 323—30 BC).

Vocabulary

kingdom — (зд.) царство craftsman — ремесленник surviving — уцелевший large-scale — крупномасштабный divinity —божество

recalcitrant — непокорный

to enable — давать возможность copper — медь

inlaid — инкрустирован

с circa лат. — приблизительно

B.C. (before Christ) — до нашей эры to miss — пропустить, утратить gilded plaster — позолота prosperous — процветающий

to rob — грабить

refinement — усовершенствование blossoming — расцвет

raw materials — сырье encouragement — поощрение mortuary — погребальный ramp — скат, уклон

to revive — возрождать

successor — последователь, наследник

I. Choose the right sentence.

1.Craftsmen worked in the finest materials.

a)Craftsmen used precious stones for their creations.

b)Craftsmen used concrete in their work.

c)It was forbidden for craftsmen to use the finest materials in their work.

2.The copper statues of Pepi I and his son are still impressive.

a)These statues were made of stone.

b)The copper statues of Pepi I and his son have not survived.

c)These statues have the power of affecting and gaining attention and

feeling.

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3.Fortresses were built to defend the southern and eastern borders of ancient Egypt.

a)Fortresses were built in the west of ancient Egypt.

b)Fortresses were erected to protect the southern and eastern boundaries of ancient Egypt.

c)During the Middle Kingdom many fortresses were built.

4.The beginning of the New Kingdom is associated with the blossoming of the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt.

a)This was a period of stagnation in the history of arts.

b)In this period craftsmen and artists were ordered great temples and palaces to be built throughout Egypt.

c)During the New Kingdom the arts and crafts flourished.

5.The Ptolomies built numerous temples of traditional style.

a)Numerous palaces were built by the Ptolomies.

b)Many traditional temples were constructed under the Ptolomies.

c)Ancient Egyptian architecture was revived under the kings of the 4th

Dynasty.

II. Complete the following sentences.

1.During the Old Kingdom artists and craftsmen ...

a)were forbidden to work in metal

b)worked under the patronage of king

c)built pyramids and temples

2.Craftsmen were able to experiment with ...

a)stone and new techniques of metalworking

b)concrete and clay

c)ivory and granite

3.The surviving examples, found at Hierakonpolis are ...

a)the sun temples of the 5th Dynasty.

b)the copper statues of Pepi I and his son

c)the Temple of Mut and the Temple of Amum

4.Very little architecture of the Middle Kingdom remains because ...

a)many royal monuments were robbed

b)of earthquakes

c)of wars

5.Craftsmen benefited from wider contact with other civilizations such as those of...

a)India and China

b)Crete and Mesopotamia

c)Assyria

6.The most notable monuments of the New Kingdom are ...

a)the Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatsheput at Deir-el-Bahari and the Great Temple of Amon at Karnak

b)Zoser's necropolis at Sakkara and Great Pyramid at El-Gizeh

c)The Temple of Horus at Etfu and the temples on the island of Philae.

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7. Ancient Egyptian architecture vbs revived under the Ptolemies, the successors

of...

a)Tuthmosis III

b)Alexander the Great

c)Queen Hatsheput

Read the text and tell about the greatest monuments of Egyptian architecture.

Text 2

GREAT SPHINX

From the 15th century AD European travellers carried home tales of the mysterious and amazing remains of the civilization of Egypt. One of its most remarkable monuments, which still evokes this sense of awe and might, is the Great Sphinx of Gizeh, the oldest surviving sphinx, dating from c2550 BC, carved from a rock with the crouching body of a lion and a human face

(74,4 m. long, 20,1 m. high, and 4,2 m. broad, at its widest point; the head is 8,7 m. high from chin to crown).

The human head was the means of individualizing the sculpture, so that the Great Sphinx probably bears the idealized features of Khephren whose

pyramid is nearby.

The concept of the king as a powerful lion goes back into prehistoric times, and several ceremonial objects have survived which depict him in this guise, overthrowing his enemies. The sphinx was, therefore, a natural development, personifying the divine power of the king as a force protecting his land and repelling the power of evil.

The Great Sphinx is one of the most distinctive and dominant of all the images of ancient Egypt, which is perhaps the source of the misconception that sphinxes are of central importance in Egyptian culture. However, those that have survived are among the most impressive as well as intriguing examples of Egyptian sculpture.

Vocabulary

amazing — удивительный remains — (зд.) руины

to evoke — вызывать (чувства)

awe — (благоговейный) страх, трепет might — могущество, мощь; энергия, сила sandstone — песчаник(овый)

to survive — выжить, уцелеть, сохраниться

to crouch — припасть к земле для нападения (о животных) to depict — изображать

divine —духовное лицо; божественный to repel — отгонять, отражать (нападение) distinctive — отличительный

misconception — неправильное представление

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I. Choose the synonyms to the words in italics.

II. Circle a), b), or c) to complete the sentence.

1.The European travellers saw the mysterious and amazing ...

a)ruins of the Hanging Gardens of Semeramide

b)remains of the civilization of Egypt

c)ruins of the Parthenon

2.The Great Sphinx of Gizeh was ...

a)made of marble

b)created by Imhotep

c)carved from rock

3.The Great Sphinx has a crouching body of a lion and ...

a)a dragon's head

b)a human face

c)a cow's head

4.The sphinx personified ...

a)the divine power of the king

b)the mighty of God

c)the greatness of the Roman Empire

5.The concept of the king as a powerful lion goes back into ...

a)the Middle Ages

b)the Archaic period

c)prehistoric times

ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE

Warming-up

1.What do you know about the greatest monuments of ancient Greek architecture?

2.Why do you think these monuments are the finest models for all generations of architecture?

3.What do you know about the architecture of the Acropolis?

Read the text and describe the Acropolis monuments.

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THE ATHENIAN ACROPOLIS

As one of the world's oldest cities Athens boasts a wealth of splendid relics of Hellenic art, some of which are more than 3,000 years old. The Acropolis, the Greek for upper town, the gem of world architecture, stands on a low rocky hill and contains the ruins of several ancient Greek architectural monuments.

The Parthenon, a stately building with an eight-column facade, was built by Ictinus and Calibrates in 447—38 BC. The temple was designed to serve as an exquisite, imposing architectural frame for a stupendous gold and ivory statue of Athena, the goddess in the Greek pantheon watching over the city. This no longer extant statue, which stood in the anterior of the shrine, was held in deep reverence.

Next to the Parthenon is another shrine, an Ionic temple of Athena, the Erechtheum, built by an anonymous architect in 421—06 BC. Its refined loveliness and proportions are a very bit as enchanting as the monumental grandeur of the Parthenon. It has the unparalleled portrayal of a contemporary event on the frieze of the building: the procession of citizens in the yearly festival in honour of Athena built on an awkward site, it also had to serve different cults, which meant that its architect had to design a building with three porches and three different floor levels. Its Caryatid porch, with figures of women for columns, makes use of an old Oriental motif that

had appeared earlier, in Archaic treasuries at Delphi. The monumental gateway to the Acropolis, the Propylaea was designed by Mnesicles, who had to adapt the rigid conventions of colonnade construction to a steeply rising site. In the precision and finish of their execution, which complements the brilliant innovation of their design, these three buildings had no rival in the Greek world.

Vocabulary

to boast — (зд.) гордиться

gem — (перен.) драгоценный, жемчужина exquisite — утонченный

imposing — внушительный, величественный frame — оправа, обрамление

stupendous — изумительный, громадный ivory — слоновая кость

anterior — передний shrine — святилище, храм refined — изысканный grandeur — величие portrayal — изображение

awkward — труднодоступный porch — портик, крытая галерея treasury — сокровищница rigid — жесткий, строгий steeply — круто

precision — точность

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rival — соперник

I. Complete the following sentences.

1.The Acropolis means ...

a)upper town

b)a platform

c)front elevation

2.The Parthenon was built by ...

a)an anonymous architect

b)Imhotep

c)Ictinus and Calibrates

3.The Parthenon was a display place for a great statue of... a) Hera

b)Athena

c)Alexander the Great

4.The Erechtheum was also designed to serve different...

a)cults

b)architects

c)cities

5.The porch of the Erechtheum has figures of... for columns.

a)atlases

b)caryatids

c)sphinxes

6.In the Propylaea the rigid conventions of colonnade construction were adapted to a steeply rising ...

a)floor

b)building

c)site

7.The Propylaea was ... to the Acropolis.

a)a temple

b)the monumental gateway

c)staircase

II. Choose the right adjective.

1.The Acropolis is the gem of... architecture.

a)European

b)contemporary

c)world

2.The temple was designed to serve as a/an ..., imposing architectural frame for the statue of Athena.

a)exquisite

b)rocky

c)deep

3.The Erechtheum was built by a/an ...architect.

a)famous

b)talented

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c)anonymous

4.Its caryatid porch features an old ... motif.

a)Oriental

b)monumental

c)world

III. Choose the right form of the verb.

1.The Acropolis ... on a low rocky hill.

a)was standing

b)stood

c)stands

d)are standing

2.The Parthenon ... by Ictinus and Callicrates.

a)will be built

b)is built

c)builds

d)was built

3.Its caryatid porch makes use of an old Oriental motif that... earlier.

a)had appeared

b)appear

c)has appeared

d)appears

4.The Propylaea ... by Mnesicles. a) designed b) is designed

c)was designed

d)has been designed

5.The major buildings of the Acropolis ... no rival in the Greek world, a) have b)had

c)are having

d)has

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Warming up

1.What architectural forms did the Romans prefer?

2.What greatest temples of Roman architecture do you know?

3.Why are the Romans called the great builders and engineers?

4.What ancient Roman towns do you know?

5.What was the influence of Roman architecture on the resulting styles?

Read the text and tell about the architecture of Residential and Public Structures of the Roman Empire.

Modern knowledge of Roman architecture derives primarily from extant remains scattered throughout the area of the empire. Some are well preserved, and other are known only in fragments and by theoretical restoration. Another source

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