Архитектура Строительство_Ин Яз

stressed fire precautions. The first building regulations for Helsinki came into force in 1825. They laid down the legal powers and responsibilities of both officials and private builders with regard to the town plan, even down to the painting of houses. The building regulations were generally divided into three sections: the first applied to the town plan, the second to the plots and how they were to be built, and the third to the methods of construction to be employed. Drawings were to be submitted for all buildings. The Senate's approval was required for the plans of public buildings, while those of private houses were to be approved first by the local administration, and then by the provincial governor. Drawings were to show the size of the building, its outward appearance and internal layout. A site plan, a section and an elevation drawing were required for official purposes. Before building could start planning permission had to be obtained from a committee including the chairman of the magistrates, the mayor, two or three other magistrates and two experts. To ensure more efficient control over building use was made from 1850 of a land register in which the boundaries of the plots and the position of the buildings were recorded. Building inspections were entered in a survey book of minutes, and a separate book was kept for reports on buildings considered by the city administration. At the close of the 19th century, the regulations on the submission of plans were tightened. They had to be drawn to certain fixed scales and bear a signature. Reports on inspections had to contain a statement on the structural soundness of the buildings. In special cases the city administration had recourse to the provincial building office for assistance.

The competence of the city administration was mainly limited to adjudication. The city architects and the inspectors of the National Board of Building did not have time to examine every individual case. Efficient control of the increasing building activity would have required the setting up of more local bodies. In 1895 the City Council appointed a special architect as inspector of buildings, initially on a part-time basis. In addition, a representative from the City Council and a medical officer from the Board of Health took part in inspections. In 1908 the post of building inspector with statutory powers was created in Helsinki. His duties comprised the supervision of building projects in Helsinki and its environs with the exception of building work by the state. In 1912 an Office for Building Inspection was organized to discharge the same duties.

In 1924 a special commission was set up for the inspection of facades. It consisted of the building inspector, the city architect, the planning officer and two members of the City Council, the latter elected for a period of one year. In this way responsibility for inspection of facades passed from a state official to the City Office for Building Inspection.

Although numerous local bodies have been set up to control building since the beginning of the century, the city administration has retained the final word on building work in the city, including the right to grant or withhold planning permission.

In a constantly changing city one of the main concerns of planners is to preserve historic buildings. Nearly 900 buildings have had to be pulled down

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in the centre of Helsinki during the past ten years, a fairly high proportion of the around 7,000 buildings in this district. The governing principles for the protection of historic-buildings are as follows: to preserve the historic continuity of the city by restoring the environment of various social groups in various centuries; to protect squares valuable for aesthetic reasons; to protect integral sectors and individual buildings of cultural and historic value.

Careful consideration is given in monument preservation plans to historic buildings and interiors to be placed under preservation orders. A list of about 800 buildings and interiors in the city centre has been compiled. The supplementary map to the city's development plans contains proposals for the preservation of the buildings listed. There are no time-limits fixed for their implementation, but they determine at design level the main principles of the restoration operations envisaged, and have a bearing upon the city development plans as well. City plans are to be prepared, or if necessary modified, in such a way that the restoration of a building under preservation order becomes the only obvious solution, even from the economic point of view. Helsinki is responsible for the conservation of the old stone-built architecture of Finland. There are 190 twoor many-storeyed buildings in the whole country, which are over 75 years old; of these 81 are in the centre of the city. Art Nouveau style buildings in Finland number 350, of which 200 are in central Helsinki.

In 1970 the City Commission for Historic Buildings placed 183 buildings under preservation order. According to the building regulations in force, the demolition of protected buildings is subject to the consent of the Commission. Eighteen blocks in the vicinity of Senate Square have had a demolition ban imposed on them since 1952. Eight of the historic buildings in the city centre have been fully restored, three of which had been damaged during the war. The interior of these buildings was partly restored and partly rebuilt, but no changes were made to their facades.

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London

London, the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, lies on the banks of the River Thames, 80 km from the North Sea. Its geographical position is latitude 510 30' north and longitude 0°. The administrative area of Greater London is 1,600 t. sq.km., its population was 7,393,800 in 2003. London conurbation covers an area of 9,900 sq.km., with a population about 11,000,000. The present chapter deals particularly with the historic nucleus, the City of London, which covers 274 ha. A quarter of Britain's industrial production is concentrated in the London area.

A wide estuary facing the North Sea, a deep river leading into the heart of southern England, and rising riverside ground, free from flood and marsh, provided the environment for early settlement. The site of London, with its fertile hinterland, would have attracted marauders and traders from the Continent, but its history cannot be traced with any certainty before the Roman colonization of AD 45. News of its mercantile activity may have drawn the Romans to London, but signs of earlier habitation have been obliterated by constant occupation.

While the Thames has been termed the father of the City, it was the Romans

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who nurtured its growth. They provided it with protective walls, fragments of which may still be seen, a bridge that has become a legend, a fort only recently rediscovered, and a forum and public buildings. Their road plans, radiating from London, were not unlike a railway plan of 1850. The administrative genius of the Romans helped to develop London as the medieval capital of England. Foundations, many recently excavated and preserved in measured drawings and photographs, sculptures from the temple of Mithras and elsewhere, fragments of monuments and building stones, and earth burnt, disturbed, or virgin, suggest the layout of the town and the architecture of the period.

Over the centuries London grew from a Roman city of 131 ha, secure within its walls and ditch, to the present Greater London of 157,950 ha, the boundaries of which may be marked on a map, but are otherwise indistinct, as city and suburb merge. In common parlance London is still an amorphous area of habitation and business that has developed around the ancient city. It grew by the gradual exercise of powers and functions over a succession of suburbs, and as a result could be said to have differing areas according to the functions in question. Several London and metropolitan authorities exercised those functions, most of which have now been united under Greater London Council. No particular London area has ever been designated as the capital. Historically, all the absorbed suburbs and superseded authorities have combined to create the London of today.

The departure of the Romans soon after AD 400 was followed by the invasions of the Anglo-Saxons, and led to control of London being in dispute between the adjoining kingdoms of the Angles, Saxons and Danes, and subject to invasion from the Continent. Though its prestige and independence may have been weakened for a while, it preserved its identity as a cosmopolitan town. London became the diocese of Bishop Mellitus in AD 604 and the Church of St Paul was built on a dominant site. In the next century London was described as "a mart of many peoples", and subsequent wars and invasions served to emphasize its importance. When the English kingdoms became united under King Alfred and his successors, tension in London eased, trade prospered and the citizens were better able to defend themselves or buy off invaders. Prosperity is confirmed by the number of churches which had been founded by the nth century, some with a Viking dedication to St Olaf or St Nicholas Haakon. Meanwhile the City had annexed a girdle of land outside its walls, the first suburbs, which more than doubled its jurisdiction from 131 ha to some 280 ha subsequently reduced to 274 ha by the building of the Tower of London. This boundary has remained for a thousand years and still defines the local government area of the Corporation of the City of London. Beyond these suburbs the great church of St Peter's at Westminster and the Royal Palace were rising on the Isle of Thorney. At that time Westminster was in no sense London and when Edward the Confessor moved the Royal Court there he established a geographical distance between commerce and government that has persisted to the present day. The Bayeux tapestry depicts the architecture of Westminster, imaginary or true; archaeological evidence of Saxon habitation is corroborated by chronicles and deeds.

Following the Norman invasion of England in 1066, the Bishop of Amiens

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recorded that the leading men of the realm gathered in London, which he described as overflowing with inhabitants and richer in treasures than the rest of the kingdom. When London and the whole kingdom submitted to William the Conqueror, the new king granted a charter to the citizens, written in their native language and confirming the laws and customs they had enjoyed in the time of Edward the Confessor; the charter is still preserved in the Guildhall. The new king expropriated only enough land to build the fortresses of the Tower in the east, which may still be admired, and Baynard's Castle and Montfichet in the west, which have disappeared. They were meant to afford protection against invaders and to impress and, if necessary, control the citizens themselves. The French conquerors were eventually absorbed into London's population, as the Danes and Saxons had been before them. More churches were built, and priories and hospitals founded around the city walls and on the south bank of the Thames. The citizens also felt their way towards local self-government. A jigsaw of more than 100 parishes was overlaid by another of 24 wards, and sandwiched between were a number of sokes and liberties, all seeking to exercise some authority. The fashion of community groups attracted craftsmen and merchants who established guilds with jurisdiction over trade and traders. They grew in stature and multiplied in number until they became, as they still are, a vital element in the City constitution. Their Halls, large or small, are still a feature of the City, some like the Apothecaries' and Drapers' almost hidden in lanes and courts, others such as the Fishmongers' and Goldsmiths' boldly facing a main street and containing the accumulated treasures of centuries.

By the end of the 12th century a Mayor had joined the old hierarchy of Aldermen and a Council of commoners had been conceived, London Bridge was being rebuilt of stone, and the town hall, the Guildhall, close by the more ancient Aldermanbury, was shortly to be built. The present Guildhall, commenced in 1411, stands partly on the crypt of its predecessor, but its roof has been replaced on several occasions, having been destroyed by fire and war. Here the archive evidence of the City's development has accumulated continuously in the form of royal charters, books of customs, deeds, legal records, council minutes and deposited manuscripts.

When the City acquired the right in the 12th century to appoint the Sheriff of Middlesex and in later centuries wide jurisdiction in Southwark and over many miles of the Thames waterway, it did appear to be contemplating an expansion of its boundaries. In the same way the charters of many of the guilds gave them craft powers beyond the City. It soon became obvious that the medieval characteristics of the City's constitution, its citizenship, and its trade controls, could not be applied to the suburbs. The inner suburbs were inhabited largely by poor and lawless people whom the City was less and less inclined to absorb. Building surveyors, called Viewers, and Bridgemasters, often master masons, were officers of the City in the 14th century, and in the next century the first of a long line of clerks of the works was appointed, to join the even older offices of Common Clerk and Chamberlain.

Modern place-names around the City still bear witness to the growth of London

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- St Martin in the Fields, Lincoln Inn Fields, Clerkenwell Green, Covent Garden and many more rural titles survive, although the fields and gardens have long since disappeared. Surrounding villages were linked to the City by ribbon development along the roads. The conception of a wider London seems to have arisen incidentally from health legislation in the 16th century, requiring returns of christenings and causes of death in and around the City. The area from which returns were required was extended early in the 17th century until it included the whole of Westminster and several parishes south of the Thames. The Bills of Mortality became a synonym for London. Seven separate Commissions of Sewers were established for parts of Kent, Surrey and Middlesex, including Westminster, confirming the expansion of London. Views of London from 1550, by Wyngarde, Agas, Hoefnagel, Norden and Visscher, show the congestion inevitable in an international market place. A house in or near the City was essential for court and church dignitaries, lawyers, merchants, and government officials. Tenements and divided houses jostled mansion houses, and trade required more warehouses, counting houses and offices. The Royal Exchange built in 1566 occupied the site of 80 habitations, and was the herald of future developments.

From 1570 efforts were made locally and nationally to limit congestion in London by orders prohibiting the building of houses within three miles of the gates of the City on sites not formerly built upon and against the dividing of houses into lodgings. Waste and common land was to be preserved for the recreation and health of the people, but in 1592 the restriction on building was lifted in respect of houses of the better sort. In so far as the orders were effective they encouraged an even wider London, where local controls were still negligible. Some attempts were made at the end of the i6th century to provide Westminster with an effective council of burgesses, later to incorporate the suburbs with the City, and eventually to establish a separate corporation of Westminster and the suburbs, but to no avail. Building Surveyors were appointed from 1763 to regulate building works within the area of the Bills of Mortality, but they contributed little to local government or architectural appearance, being concerned mainly with structural safety.

The Great Plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of the following year stimulated suburban development and encouraged the more prosperous to maintain a mansion in the country as well as a house in town. Almost three quarters of the houses in the City were destroyed. Rebuilding was regulated by statute as to the number of storeys, thickness of walls, and scantlings of timber, which transformed the architectural appearance of the City. Many streets were widened, realigned and levelled, projecting upper storeys were prohibited, ornament became minimal and street markets were removed. The City had a new shape, plainer but healthier. Architecture relief was provided by Christopher Wren, who rebuilt St Paul's Cathedral and the towers and spires of some 50 churches. These were paid for out of a tax on coal entering an area within a radius of about twelve miles around the City. Remarkably, this tax continued to finance street improvements and public utilities in Greater London until 1889. From the 17th century, archives, descriptive surveys, views and plans of London, its suburbs and individual buildings are so numerous and in such diverse custody as to defy composite description.

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The City became more commercial and less domestic. Although the banks were the town houses of bankers, and some remained so until modern times, the residential area moved progressively westward from Covent Garden to Soho, Cavendish, Berkeley, Grosvenor and other squares that were being laid out in what was to become known as the West End. Streets of elegant terraced houses joined the squares and acted as a foil to the mansions of the aristocracy designed for public life and festivities by architects such as Ware, Hawksmoor, Gibbs, Dance and Adams. London's architecture owed much to royal patronage, from Westminster Hall to Regent Street, from St James's Palace to Kensington Palace and from Hampton Court to Greenwich. Prince Albert, George IV and other monarchs encouraged and initiated building operations. Even so the development of the Capital was piecemeal over long periods. The house built in a mulberry garden for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 eventually became the Royal residence of Buckingham Palace. The outline plan of that part of London was already settled; it was dictated by the large estates of the Crown, the church and noble lords, which inevitably were developed for gentlemen's houses.

The growing labouring class, so vital to London's commercial prosperity, massed within walking distance of their work, in houses vacated by tradesmen and in the poorer areas by the river. A belt of cheap labour encircled the City, absorbed the Huguenots, Irish and other immigrants and provided bases for numerous small manufactories. Some of the houses of the Spitalfields weavers have been preserved.

Ever widening overseas trade required river accommodation beyond the ancient legal quays and sufferance wharves adjacent to London Bridge. The size of ships was increasing and tonnage entering London doubled between 1750 and 1800. The West India Dock and its warehouses, covering some 125 ha down river on the Isle of Dogs, opened in 1802, to be quickly followed by the London Docks at Wapping, the East India Docks at Blackwall and the Surrey Commercial Docks of some 130 ha at Rotherhithe; later the Royal Docks and St Katharine's Dock were added. Inevitably the east London suburbs were soon closely built up with terraced houses for the workers, and Dockland remained a hive of activityuntil the intensive bombing of the area during the Second World War. After the war a decline in trade, a change in transport methods, industrial unrest in the docks, and even larger ships, accelerated the closure of nearly all the London docks and the establishment of Tilbury, some 35 km from the City, as the port for London. Large derelict areas await modern development. London as a port encouraged shipping and insurance companies to establish headquarters in the City, and the world-wide services of such institutions have been in demand ever since.

The population of London increased from some 575,000 in 1700 to 900,000 in 1800, all massed within some 5 km of St Paul's. Pressure was released soon after 1800 by a transport revolution. Short-stage coaches began daily services from the suburbs, and were followed by larger horse-drawn omnibuses. The modern commuter was born. London Bridge became a railway terminus in 1836 and soon the City and West End were encircled by stations, some of architectural merit. These termini were linked from 1863 onwards by underground railways. The

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enormous railway works (there are 16 large stations in inner London alone), the villa and terrace developments throughout the suburbs, and improvements to Westminster, with new streets and squares, theatres, clubs, parks, palace and parliament, created a building boom, attracted more workmen and brought commercial prosperity. The census of 1851 still considered London as the area covered by the Bills of Mortality and found there a population of 2,236,000. Clearly such a large mass of people required comprehensive local government.

The Metropolitan Police Force was established in 1829 and was given jurisdiction ten years later over a district within a radius of some 24 km of Charing Cross, roughly the area in which the London coal duties were collected. From 1834 parishes combined for poor relief and each union established a Board of Guardians. In 1855 the local vestries were reformed and a Metropolitan Board of Works was established to construct sewers, make new streets, control buildings and carry out other general functions,, but only in an area of some 30,000 ha, one fifth of the police district. The Board executed a distinguished array of metropolitan improvements, including embankments north and south of the river, which greatly improved the vistas around Westminster. Meanwhile the central area, somewhat relieved of housing, was being transformed by more imposing buildings with wider frontages, which were favoured by banks, insurance companies and commercial firms who used their premises to emphasize prestige and stability. Architecture also relieved the impact of new asylums, pumping stations, markets, viaducts and even dwellings for the labouring classes.

Administration continued to lag behind physical development even when London was constituted a county in 1889. The new county, carved out of the counties of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent, was still confined to the former area of the Board of Works. Its population exceeded 4,000,000, but a further 1,400,000 lived in the Metropolitan Police area but still outside the county. The powers of London County Council were limited by the two-tier system, which reserved local powers to constituent districts. In 1899 these districts were elevated to Metropolitan Boroughs and thereafter the historian must be prepared for delegation and consultation between authorities and an increasing participation by government departments. Within its area the London County Council gradually increased its functions, absorbing such bodies as the London School Board and the London Asylums Board. Its building works, functional and dignified, were rarely ornamental, but County Hall, with its embankment, must surely be the Council's monument, for it gave rise to a South Bank complex. The Council preserved at County Hall a complete archive of its own activities and of its several predecessors, and sponsored the publication of a Survey of London, parish by parish.

Meanwhile the ancient City Corporation made new-approaches to London Bridge, built Tower Bridge, widened its other bridges, rebuilt the central markets and the Central Criminal Court, and established, far beyond its boundaries, an isolation hospital, an asylum and a school, while acquiring ownership of nearly 2,900 ha to preserve as open spaces. City, borough and county councils all contributed to, and in some degree controlled, London's development.

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The 20th century is the era of town planning and has produced in London an abundance of reports and plans of general schemes, actual developments and particular buildings, of which records are often duplicated, with local comment, in ministry, county and borough. Progress in planning following the tentative Act of 1909 was disrupted by the two World Wars. A Greater London Planning Committee was set up in 1927, long before Greater London was itself constituted a local authority. The report of the Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London, 1957-60, emphasized the need for an authority with wider jurisdiction. Greater London Council was set up by the London Government Act of 1963 and began to operate in 1965. Whereas the old County Council controlled an area of 30,141 ha. Greater London Council has jurisdiction over 157,950 ha and includes within its boundaries 32 London boroughs and the City, with 12,654 km of roads. The population of Greater London, 6,586,000 in 1901, had continued to increase until 1939, when it stood at 8,615,000. Destruction by war, post-war government policy of decentralization and more spacious layout in reconstruction had reduced the population of Greater London by 1976 to 7,027,600. This was enhanced by the so-called Abercrombie Plan. Inner London is defined as a circular area with a radius of roughly 8 km. It includes the City, which is today the controlling centre of British economic life. The City's resident population is just around 5,000, but a million people work there.

A strategic Greater London Development Plan was produced by Greater London Council in 1969 and modified by the government in 1976. Meanwhile, much London rebuilding had proceeded by agreement of the borough councils, with the help of declaratory orders and compulsory purchase. Conservation areas and precinct units were attempts to preserve local characteristics. Tall office buildings and tower blocks of fiats pierce the skyline as church spires used to do, but Thamesmead, with 14,800 homes, traffic-free areas and a yacht marine, the Barbican with its elevated walkways, arts centre, museum and schools, and the Royal Festival Hall complex on the South Bank are interesting experiments in planning and architecture. The development of the capital is further illustrated by the rebuilding of London Bridge, the construction of a Thames tidal flood barrier at Woolwich and a National Sports Centre at Crystal Palace.

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Moscow

Moscow is the capital of Russia. The city lies in the northern part of the Central Russian heights between the river Volga and the river Oka at a height of 120 metres above sea level, its geographical position being 55°45' N and 37°37' E. By virtue of its favourable geographical situation and the construction of waterways, the city has access to the sea.

Moscow is built on a radial, circular system, which has taken shape in the course of history and has been further expanded by new ring roads. The Moscow outer ring road, which marks the limits of the city, is 109 kilometres long. The administrative area of the city was 878 square kilometres and its population on 2003, was 10,101,500.

The historical and archaeological evidence of early settlements on the site of the future city and in its environs date back to the end of the first millennium AD, when

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