1_IZUChENIE_INOSTRANNOGO_YaZYKA_ (1)

LESSON THREE

The Participles

Forms and Functions

Forms of the participles

Functions

Функции Participle I (active) и его перевод на русский язык

Participle II может выполнять в предложении функции определения и обстоятельства

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Причастие прошедшего времени (Participle II) может стоять после определяемого слова:

The question discussed = the discussed question

Suggest the English equivalents for the following words combination.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is a study of the compounds of carbon. The name “organic” evolved from the theory that any material derived from any living organism or produced by any living organism required a “vital force” identified with life itself. All other compounds were considered to be of mineral origin. They were termed ”inorganic”. In the past people thought that the organic compounds were extremely complex and it was impossible to synthesize them in the laboratory.

Today hundreds of thousands different organic compounds have been isolated or synthesized .The number of possible compounds is extremely large.

Organic compounds can form isomers. Isomers are different compounds containing the same elements in the same proportions but with different structural or spatial arrangement of the atoms. Thus a study of chemistry would be extremely complex, except for the orderly manner of arrangement and comparison of the various possible classes of compounds.

The field of organic chemistry is usually broken down into three

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divisions, namely; 1) alifatic, 2) aromatic, 3) heterocyclic.

1. Ответьте на вопросы:

1)What is organic chemistry?

2)What did the name “organic” evolve from?

3)How many different organic compounds have been isolated or synthesized?

4)Can organic compounds form isomers?

5)What compounds are called isomers?

6)Into what divisions is organic chemistry usually broken down?

2. Найдите синонимы:

evolve, demand, obtain, to be broken down, branch, complicated, spatial, isolate complex, to be termed, require, structural, division, develop

3.Определите к каким частямречи относятся следующие cлова: isomer, arrangement, arrange, identify, consider, field, synthesis, synthesize, comparison, spatial, various, isolate, structural, structure

4.Переведите наанглийскийязык:

различные органические вещества, таким образом, пространственное расположение, чрезвычайно сложный, различные классы соединений, отождествлять, область, жизненная сила, систематическая классификация, алифатические, ароматические и гетероциклические) соединения

5. Найдите в английском текстепричастия вфункцииопределения, соответствующиерусским причастиям:

содержащий

полученный

произведенный

отождествляемые

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LESSON FOUR

Grammar: The Gerund.

Герундий - неличная форма глагола, выражающая процесс действия. Формы герундия и причастия 1 одинаковы.

Формы Герундия

1.Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на форму герундия:

1.She likes asking questions.

2.He does not like being asked.

3.I remember having asked the questions.

4.I remember having been asked about it.

2.Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1.There are several approaches one can take to answering there question.

2.The only reliable way of verifying hypothesis is to perform experiments.

3.A compound can be usually broken down by heating or by the application of an electric current.

4.There are other schemes for classifying reactions.

5.The body adapts to living at high elevations by producing additional hemoglobin.

6.In writing the equation for a chemical reaction, we put the reactants on the left and the products on the right side of the equation.

7.Going from the liquid to the gaseous stare involves a much greater change than going from the solid to the liquid.

8.Changing weather conditions cause the atmospheric pressure to vary.

9.Molecular bonding and structure play the central role in determine the course of chemical reactions.

10.The method of induction is the process of reasoning from particular facts or ideas to a general rule or law.

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GLUCOSE

Glucose is one of the many substances called “sugars”. All the sugars are chemically built up from the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is found in the most fruits when ripe, in the nectar (a sweet liquid) of flowers and in small but necessary amounts, in blood. It has many names, such as grape sugar, corn sugar, and blood sugar. Chemists call the purest form of it dextrose.

Glucose can be made by coiling the dextrose obtained from potatoes or maize with acid. The starch combines with water and glucose is formed.

Glucose is much used for making sweets and preserving fruits. It is quickly absorbed be the body. Its effect which is to give energy and strength takes place rapidly. Like other sugars, it is easily fermented and then gives ethyl alcohol. Ethyl alcohol is widely used in many fields of chemistry.

1. Ответьте на вопросы:

1.What is glucose?

2.What are all the sugars chemically built up from ?

3.Where is glucose found?

4.What are the most common names of glucose?

5.How is glucose produced?

6.Where is glucose used?

8. Is glucose quickly absorbed by the body?

2.Переведите на английский язык:

углерод, водород, кислород, в зрелом виде, виноградный сахар(декстроза), сахар, содержащийся в крови, декстрозаиз кукурузы, консервирование фруктов, поглощать, быстро осуществляться, подобно, легко подвергаться брожению, этиловый спирт, крахмал

3.Вставьте пропущенные слова:

sugars, energy, absorb, combining application, fermentation, form

1)All the . . . contain the same elements -carbon , hydrogen, oxygen.

2)The purest … of glucose is called dextrose.

3)Glucose can be obtained by . . . starch with water.

4)Ethyl alcohol can be produced be … of glucose.

5)Glucose finds a wide . . . for preserving fruits.

6)Glucose supplies . . . and strength to human body.

7)Glucose is quickly . . . by human organism.

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4. Определите, к какимчастям речиотносятся следующие слова:

chemically, chemistry, chemist, chemical, find, finding, blood, combine, combination, form, formation, absorb, absorption ,necessary, strength, rapidly

5. Найдите в текстегерундиальные формыглагола:

LESSON FIVE

ACIDS AND BASES

We know acids and bases to be extremely useful1 substances and we have much information about their properties. However, the behaviour of these compounds can be explained by several slightly different theories, and some definitions differ somewhat from other definitions.

Acids are compounds which contain hydrogen; most acids containing oxygen. In water solution, they yield Н+ ions which are loosely attached to water molecules as oxonium ions. The properties which are common tо all2 water solutions of acids are due to the hydronium iоn. All acids contain replaceable hydrogen, have sour taste, neutralize bases, conduct electricity and turn blue litmus red.

An acid can be produced by heating а salt of the acid with sulphuric acid or by the reaction of water with acid anhydrides. Acid anhydrides are non-metallic oxides in terms of their ability to combine with water and to form acids.

One of the most important acids, the hydrochloric acid, is known to be formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. Some other important acids are sulphuric acid, nitric acid and acetic acid. 3

Bases are hydroxides of metals. They are the chemical opposites of acids. Most bases are electrovalent compounds which dissociate into ions by the action of the solvent water. Among the most important bases are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide.

The properties common го all water solutions of bases have а bitter taste, feel soapy, neutralize acids, conduct electricity, and turn red litmus blue.

Bases mау be made by adding an active metal to water, by combing а metal oxide with water, or by combining а salt with а soluble base.

Примечания

1.extremely useful - чрезвычайно полезные

2.are common to all - общие для всех

3.acetic acid - уксусная кислота

Упражнения к тексту

I.Проверьте ваше понимание текста по следующим вопросам:

1.What are bases and acids?

2.What are the properties of acids and bases?

3.How can acids and bases be produced in the laboratory?

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II.Подберите пары синонимов:

to change, as, to possess, probable, to have, possible, device, speed, to let, velocity, apparatus, to permit, because, to transform

III.Составьте предложения, используя следующие слова:

1.An atom, which, carries, an ion, is, or, group of atoms, an electrical charge.

2.Compounds, consist, electrovalent, of particles, state, in, the ionic.

3.Compounds, exist, the form, in, of crystals, usually, electrovalent.

Лексические упражнения

IV. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, запомните значения term.

term – 1) термин, условие, выражение, срок, семестр; 2) называть

in terms of – в единицах, в выражениях, в плане, в виде, из-за, исходя из чего-либо

1.The proper use of chemical terms is essential for your report.

2.The word term may have tens of meanings.

3.These examples are presented in terms of organic chemistry.

4.Non-metallic oxides are termed acid anhydrides.

5.The second term begins in February.

6.Your terms are unacceptable for me.

Повторение грамматики

V. Прочитайте и запомните следующие примеры, обращая внимание на перевод:

Сложное подлежащее (The Complex Subject)

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VI. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения.

1. They are known to take an active part in social work. 2. The students are heard to speak in the corridor. 3. The experiment was supposed to be carried out next week. 4. He seems to report at the conference. 5. My friend appears to be a good experimenter. 6. The method happened to be very useful. 7. This technique proved to be reliable. 8. They are likely to pass their exams successfully. 9. This method is unlikely to be suitable in this case. 10. The two lines are found to coincide in the point indicated above.

VII. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на инфинитивные конструкции.

1. In this experiment the scientists seemed to have included some new compounds. 2. The attraction is assumed to be increasing with heating. 3. The experimental data are said to coincide with the theoretical expectations. 4. Oxygen is known to be the most abundant element. 5. The diagram is likely to have been printed in this book. 6. This group is likely to include all the cases mentioned above. 7. Strength of current was measured by the scientist who found it to be of the order of a hundred amperes. 8. The result showed the minerals to have been subjected to heating. 9. We consider a given volume of water at a definite temperature to be capable of diluting a certain quantity of salt. 10. The kinetic theory of gases assumes gases to be made up of molecules moving about chaotically.

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Additional Texts

INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

The uses of automation in the manufacturing and allied industries are many and varied. The greatest progress in industrial automation has so far been made in the chemical and allied industries, particularly those involving continuous production1 as opposed to batch manufacture,2 е.g. oil refineries, where chemical reactants are relatively stable and well defined. There the reactants are moved through а constant process pattern,3 and the controller4 supervises the whole operation and keeps it in а stable and optimum state by а network of sensors, actuators5 and feedback units6. Moreover the controllers themselves can alter their own configuration (о change the composition and quantity of products and raw materials by means of special programs.

The advanced control system is an example of automation known by the term "direct digital control" (D.D.C.)7 in which the computer completely controls the operation and for which computer programs should be devised to optimise conditions and cope with various situations. Indeed, D.D.С. is being widely used in the chemical and other industries, particularly since relatively cheap, highly reliable and rather small in size computers are now available. In chemical plants а scanner examines inputs from sensors at а rate of about one per second,8 this rate increasing in emergencies. During the time intervals between successive scans9 the computer carries out а vast number of calculations in order to take а decision about optimum conditions; its instructions, which should be in а digital form,10 are then conveyed to the actuator (valves, etc.) via an analogue-digital converter11 that changes digital signals into analogue ones. The operator is watching the digits on а display, but he doesn’t deal with programming.

Примечания

1.continuous production — непрерывное производство

2.batch manufacture — периодическое производство

3.а constant process pattern — постоянная схема процесса

4.controller — контроллер, контролирующее устройство

5.actuator — исполнительное устройство

б. feedback unit — цепь обратной связи

7. direct digital control (D.D.С.) — непосредственное цифровое уп-

равление

8. ... examines inputs from sensors at а rate of about one per second — ...

опрашивает входные линии с датчиков со скоростью примерно одна в секунду

9.successive scans — циклы опроса

10.digital form — цифровая форма представления сигнала

11.converter — преобразователь

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Упражнения

I.Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1.What helps the controller keep the whole operation in a stable and optimum state?

2.What process of production is the most progressive?

3.What is the D.D.C.?

4.Why is this system widely used?

5.What is the role of the computer in the process?

ТНЕ ORIGIN OF COAL

Carbon compounds are very abundant in nature. All organic substances are carbon compounds, and dead animals or plant matter, once exposed to the air, decay very rapidly owing to the oxidation brought about by the agency of bacteria. The gaseous products of this process of decay escape into bacterial decomposition, and have become trapped or fixed, in rock. Coal and petroleum are supposed to be the result of this failure of nature's cleaning system.

Coal. When plant matter from the great prehistoric forests1 became submerged in swamps and bogs, the supply of air was limited, and complete oxidation was, therefore, impossible.

These beds of dead plant matter2 gradually became covered with deposits of sand and mud, so that the pressure above them became very great, and the beds of plant tissue were pushed deeper into the hotter zones of the Earth' s crust. As а result of this terrific compression, it is believed that water was pressed out of the plant remains and the chemical changes taking place resulted ш the loss of hydrogen and hydrogen compounds such as methane (marsh gas3).

The final result, after thousands of years, was coal: а material containing а high percentage of carbon. Different varieties of coal, dependent on the pressure involved,4 may be formed. The process of coal formation is generally believed to be as follows:

plant matter → peat (29%C) → lignite (43%C) → bituminous coal (64%С) → anthracite (87%С).

The percentages of carbon given above are average values from the analysis of а large number of coals, but the gradual increase in carbon content is clearly shown. If the pressure of the rock has been so great that all the hydrogen has been expelled graphite is formed. Coal is not found, therefore, in the oldest rocks since the pressures involved would have expelled all hydrogen from the original plant tissue. The theory of the biological origin of coal may be represented by the following diagram:

atmospheric carbon dioxide → photosynthesis → sugar → starch → cellulose →

(plant tissue) → wood → coal.

Thus, the solar energy stored by plants during the process of photosynthesis millions of years ago is liberated as heat energy in the combustion of coal today.

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