- •Министерство образования рф
- •Accidence
- •§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
- •§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
- •Accidence general classification of the parts of speech
- •Chapter I
- •§ 1. The noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word.
- •§ 2. The noun has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. The noun has certain syntactical characteristics.
- •§ 4. The Morphological composition of nouns.
- •§ 5. The Classification of nouns.
- •§ 6. The category of number.
- •§ 7. The category of case.
- •§1. General notion.
- •§ 2. Functions of the Article.
- •§ 1. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns.
- •§ 2. The use of the definite article with class nouns.
- •§ 3. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes.
- •§ 4. Additional notes on the Use of the Definite article.
- •§ 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used.
- •§ 12. Names of persons.
- •§ 13. Geographical names.
- •§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
- •§ 15. Names of cardinal points.
- •§ 16. Names of months and days.
- •§ 17. The use of articles with nouns modified by proper nouns.
- •§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions.
- •§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article.
- •§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns.
- •§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition.
- •§ 23. Class nouns used in address take no article.
- •§ 24. Place of the article.
- •§25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian.
- •§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening.
- •§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons.
- •§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.
- •§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town.
- •§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals.
- •§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages.
- •§ 32. Most.
- •§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little.
- •§ 34. Two, the two, three, the three etc.
- •§ 35. The second, a second.
- •§ 36. Another, the other.
- •Chapter III
- •§ 1. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance.
- •§ 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics:
- •§ 3. Spelling rules.
- •§ 4. The adjective has the following syntactical characteristics:
- •§ 5. The Morphological composition of the adjective.
- •§ 6. The Classification of adjectives.
- •§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
- •§8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
- •§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.
- •Chapter IV
- •§ 1. The pronoun is a part of speech, which points out objects and their qualities without naming or describing them.
- •§ 2. The Classification of pronouns.
- •§ 3. Personal pronouns.
- •§ 4. Possessive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 5. Reflexive pronouns.
- •1St person 2nd person 3rd person
- •§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns.
- •§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns.
- •§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
- •§ 9. Relative pronouns.
- •§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns.
- •§ 11. Defining pronouns.
- •§ 12. Indefinite pronouns.
- •§ 13. Negative pronouns.
- •§ 1. The numeral is a part of speech, which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
- •§ 2. Cardinal numerals.
- •§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 4. Ordinal numerals.
- •§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.
- •§ 1. The words of the category of state denote the temporary state or condition of persons or things.
- •§ 2. As regards form the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.
- •§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.
- •§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:
- •§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
- •§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
- •§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
- •§ 1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
- •§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses. Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.
- •§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.
- •§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
- •§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
- •Chapter X
- •§ 1. The preposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
- •§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
- •§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
- •§ 1. The conjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
- •§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes
- •§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions.
- •§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.
- •Chapter XII
- •§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
- •Chapter XIII the verb
- •§ 2. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
- •§ 3. The basic forms of the verb in Modern English are; the Infinitive, the Past Indefinite and Participle II: to speak—-spoke— spoken.
- •§ 4. According to the syntactic function of verbs, which depends on the extent to which they retain, weaken or lose their meaning, they are divided into notional verbs, auxiliary verbs and link verbs.
- •§ 7. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.
- •§ 9. Voice is the category of the verb, which indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject and the object.
- •§10. Mood is a grammatical category, which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality.
- •The Present Indefinite.
- •§ 1. The use of the Present Indefinite.
- •The Past Indefinite
- •§ 2. The use of the Past Indefinite.
- •The Future Indefinite
- •§ 3. The use of the Future Indefinite.
- •The Continuous Form
- •The Present Continuous
- •§ 4. The Present Continuous is used:
- •The Past Continuous
- •§ 5. The use of the Past Continuous.
- •The Future Continuous
- •§ 6. The use of the Future Continuous.
- •Verbs not used in the Continuous form
- •The Perfect Form
- •The Present Perfect
- •§ 7. The use of the Present Perfect.
- •§ 8. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.
- •The Past Perfect
- •§ 9. The use of the Past Perfect.
- •§ 10. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.
- •§ 11. The use of the Future Perfect.
- •The Perfect Continuous Form
- •§ 12. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 13. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous.
- •§ 14. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •The Past Perfect Continuous.
- •§ 15.We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive.
- •§ 16. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous.
- •§ 17. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.
- •The Passive Voice
- •§ 18. The use of the Passive Voice.
- •§ 19. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
- •§ 21. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
- •§ 22. The Passive Voice and the Nominal Predicate.
- •Modal verbs
- •§ 4. Must.
- •§ 5. Should and ought.
- •§ 8. Shall.
- •§ 9. Will.
- •§ 10. Would.
- •§ 11. Dare.
- •§12. Need.
- •The Indicative Mood
- •The Imperative Mood
- •The Subjunctive Mood
- •§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries should, would, may (might) and the infinitive of the notional verb.
- •§ 4. In modern English the forms of the Past Indefinite and Past Perfect Indicative are used to express unreality.
- •1. Simple sentences
- •§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms. In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
- •2. Complex sentences.
- •§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is used in conditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
- •§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
- •§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
- •§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
- •Chapter XIV
- •§ 1. The verbals are three in number: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. The verbals combine the characteristics of the verb with those of some other parts of speech.
- •§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
- •The participle
- •§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the Active and the Passive voice.
- •§ 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions.
- •§ 8. The functions of Participle II in the sentence.
- •§ 9. Predicative constructions with the Participle.
- •§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction.
- •It published.
- •§12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
- •§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle.
- •The gerund
- •§ 16. The double nature of the gerund.
- •§ 17. The tense distinctions of the gerund.
- •§18. The voice distinctions of the gerund.
- •§ 21. The use of the gerund.
- •§ 22. The functions of the gerund in the sentence.
- •§ 23. The gerund and the infinitive.
- •§ 24. The gerund and the participle.
- •§ 26. The tense and aspect distinctions of the Infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the Infinitive are not absolute but relative.
- •§ 27. The voice distinctions of the Infinitive.
- •§ 28. The use of the Infinitive without the particle to (the bare
- •Infinitive).
- •§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
- •§ 30. Infinitive constructions.
- •§ 31. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
- •§ 32. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
- •The use of the Subjective Infinitive Construction
- •§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
§ 29. The functions of the Infinitive in the sentence.
The Infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions. A single Infinitive occurs but seldom: in most cases we find an infinitive phrase, i. e. an infinitive with one or several accompanying words.
1. The Infinitive as a subject. The to- Infinitive is but seldom used in this function:
To send him that letter was a mistake.
To fulfil this condition was out of my power.
The Infinitive as a subject can be rendered in Russian by an infinitive, by a noun, or by a clause.
Much more frequent is the case to use the to- Infinitive as a subject beginning the sentence with it (the introductory it). The introductory it is not translated into Russian.
It isn’t expensive to play tennis in England.
В Англии играть в теннис недорого.
It is useless to discuss the question. (Eliot)
Бесполезно обсуждать этот вопрос.
It was pleasant to be driving a car again. (Braine)
Было приятно снова вести машину.
2. The Infinitive as a predicative.
He’s greatest wish was to tell her everything.
Самым большим его желанием было рассказать ей все.
My intention is to get into parliament. (Trollops)
Моя цель—пройти в парламент.
The Infinitive can also be used as part of a predicative.
This book is hard to get.
Эту книгу трудно достать.
The abode of Mrs. Betty was not easy to find. (Dickens)
Жилище миссис Бетти было нелегко найти.
3. The Infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate.
a) after modal verbs, modal expressions, and verbs expressing modality the Infinitive forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate.
She must speak now or not at all. (Cronin)
Она должна говорить сейчас или не говорить вообще.
Is there a stream where we could bathe?
Здесь есть ручей, где мы могли бы искупаться?
I intend to lead a better life in the future. (Wilde)
Я намереваюсь в будущем жить лучше.
He wanted to tell her of the incident, longed to end their period of strife.
Он хотел рассказать ей о том, что случилось, хотел положить конец периоду их взаимного отчуждения.
b) With verbs denoting the beginning, duration, or end of an action the Infinitive forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.
Imprisonment began to tell upon him. (Dickens)
Before daylight it started to drizzle. (Hemingway)
Clare continued to observe her. (Hardy)
... they gradually ceased to talk. (Twain)
4. The Infinitive as an object is found after the verbs: to agree, to arrange, to ask (to request), to decide, to deserve, to expect, to fail, to forget, to hate, to help, to learn, to like, to manage etc.
The man agreed to serve as a witness.
Мужчина согласился быть свидетелем.
He never said a word about what he planned to do.
The Infinitive used as an object can be preceded by the introductory object it. The introductory object it is not translated into Russian.
He found it utterly impossible to leave the spot. (Hardy)
Он считал совершенно невозможным покинуть это место.
5. The Infinitive as part of a complex object.
Old Jolyon saw his brother’s face change. (Galsworthy)
Старый Джолион видел, как изменилось лицо его брата.
I never saw you act this way before. (Dreiser)
Я никогда раньше не видел, чтобы вы так поступали.
(A detailed treatment of the Infinitive used as part of a complex object is further.)
6. The Infinitive as an attribute in English modifies both abstract and class nouns, indefinite pronouns (somebody, something, anybody, anything etc.), ordinal numerals and the adjective last.
The Infinitive as an attribute is rendered in Russian by an infinitive (chiefly after abstract nouns), by a subordinate clause or by a finite verb serving as the predicate of a simple sentence (after ordinal numerals and the adjective last).
He was always the first to enter the dining- room and the last to
leave it. (Mansfield)
Он всегда первым входил в столовую и последним покидал ее.
I have not had time to examine this room yet. (Conan Doyle)
У меня еще не было времени осмотреть эту комнату
I have nobody to say a kind word to me. (Trollope)
У меня нет никого, кто сказал бы мне доброе слово.
The Infinitive used as an attribute often has a modal force, it expresses an action thought of as obligatory or possible.
It is the only thing to do.
Это единственное, что надо сделать.
I’ll buy you some magazines to read on the journey.
Я куплю тебе несколько журналов, которые можно почитать в пути.
It is not a chance to be missed.
Этот случай нельзя упустить.
7. The Infinitive as an adverbial modifier.
a) The Infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of purpose.
I dressed and went out to buy the morning paper.
Я оделся и вышел, чтобы купить утреннюю газету.
Laws were not made to be broken, laws were made to stay within.
Законы были созданы не для того, чтобы их нарушать, а для того, чтобы им подчиняться.
The Infinitive as an adverbial modifier of purpose can be introduced by in order and so as.
We slid into the river and had a swim, so as to freshen up and
cool off.
Мы бросились в реку и искупались, чтобы освежиться и охладиться.
Sometimes you retreat in order to advance. (Heym)
Иногда отступают для того, чтобы вновь перейти в наступление.
b) The Infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of result. This chiefly occurs after adjectives or adverbs modified by the adverbs enough and too.
It was dark enough to get lost.
Было достаточно темно, чтобы заблудиться.
I know him well enough to judge.
Я знаю его достаточно хорошо, чтобы судить о нем.
I was too busy to see anyone.(Witson)
Я был так занят, что не мог ни с кем встречаться.
The Infinitive as an adverbial modifier of result is also to be found in sentences of the following type:
His tone was such as to allow no contradiction.
Тон его не допускал возражений.
He was so weak as to be unable to work.
Он был так слаб, что не мог работать.
c) The Infinitive can be an adverbial modifier of comparison (manner); in most cases with an additional meaning of purpose. In this function it is introduced by the conjunctions as if or as though.
She smiled mockingly and turned away, as though to go out.
Она насмешливо улыбнулась и отвернулась, как будто хотела выйти.
She nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop him.
Она нервно протянула руку к его губам, как будто хотела остановить его.
d) The Infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.
She was driven away, never to revisit this neighbourhood. (Ch. Bronte)
Она была вынуждена уехать и больше не вернулась в эти места.
I am sorry to have raised your expectations, Mr. Blake, only to disappoint them. (Collins)
Мне очень жаль, что я пробудил в вас надежду, мистер Блейк, только для того, чтобы затем отнять ее.
Note. Some grammarians maintain that in sentences of this type the infinitive performs the function of an adverbial modifier of result (consequence).
8. The Infinitive as parenthesis.
To tell the truth, I’m sick and tired of this nonsense.
По правде говоря, я до смерти устал от этой глупости.
To put it mildly, she’s just a bit curious.
Мягко говоря, она несколько любопытна.
Well, to cut a long story short, they thought it would be more economical to live at the villa. (Maugham)
Короче говоря, они решили, что будет дешевле жить на вилле.
Не was rude, to say the least of it.
Он был груб, чтобы не сказать больше.