3. Обстоятельство

В данной функции перед герундием употребляется предлог.

Geologists discovered the presence of oil without drilling a well.

Геологи обнаружили присутствие нефти, не разбуривая скважину (без бурения).

In drilling hard rocks diamond bits are used.

При бурении твердых пород используются алмазные долота.

4. Определение

В данной функции перед герундием употребляется предлог of (for).

Anew method of drilling—turbodrilling—was developed by the Russian engineer Kapelushnikov. Новый метод бурения — турбобурение — разработан русским инженером Капелюшниковым.

Герундиальные конструкции (The Gerundial Constructions)

1. существительное в притяжательном падеже 2. существительное в общем падеже 3. притяжательное местоимение

+ герундий

J. Alferov's being awarded the Nobel prize in physics is a great achievement of Russian science.

To, что Ж.Алферов награжден Нобелевской премией в области физики, является большим достижением российской науки.

J. Alferov is a great Russian physicist/ Everybody knows of his (Alferov) having been awarded the Nobel prize.

Ж.Алферов — крупнейший российский физик. Все знают о том, что он награжден Нобелевской премией.

Герундий употребляется после следующих глаголов и выражений:

to avoid —избегать

to enjoy — получать удовольствие от

to excuse — извинять

to continue —продолжать

to finish —заканчивать

to give up —бросать, отказываться от

to go on — продолжать

to keep on — продолжать

to mind —возражать

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to stop	— прекращать
to prefer	— предпочитать
it is worth	— стоит (что-то сделать)
it's no use	— нет смысла, бесполезно
to account for	— объяснять (лежать в основе чего-либо)
to aim at	— стремиться к
to agree to	— соглашаться с (чем-то)
to depend on	— зависеть от
to differ in	— отличаться по
to be fond of	— увлечься
to be interested in	—интересоваться
to insist on	— настаивать на
to object to	— возражать
to prevent from	— мешать, препятствовать, предотвращать
to rely on	— полагаться на
to result from	— проистекать из (от)
to result in	— приводить к
to succeed in	— удаваться, добиваться
Предлоги,	после которых употребляется герундий
apart from	— помимо, кроме > — кроме, вдобавок
in addition to
besides	— кроме
because of	—- из-за
despite	— несмотря на
due to	— благодаря
instead of	— вместо
in spite of	— несмотря на
thanks to	— благодаря
owing to	— благодаря

Ex. 5 Translate the following word combinations:

1. the way of separating oil; a method of exploring a territory; the problem of refining crude oil; the process of converting oil into useful products.

2. to be interested in obtaining new data; to prevent from mixing with smth; to result in solving the problem; to succeed in studying a new process; it's no use asking this question; it's worth trying to survey the area.

3. on heating the mixture; after heating the mixture; before heating the mixture; by (through) heating the mixture; for heating the mixture; without heating the mixture; apart from polluting; in addition to increasing; because of reducing; instead of drying; in spite of forecasting.

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Ex.6 Translate the following sentences.

1. He is fond of reading.

2. Heisfondofbeingreadto.

3. I like asking questions but not being asked questions.

4. I object to his asking questions.

5. I don't object to his being asked questions.

6. I remember having met you.

7. Do you mind her working with us?

8. He didn't agree to their taking part in the conference.

9. We insist on your conducting this experiment.

10. They know of our having finished the work in time.

11. The engineers are interested in solving the problem of protecting pipes against corrosion as soon as possible.

12. A new method of exploring a well was introduced last month.

13. On forecasting oil reserves one should apply the data of geophysical survey.

14. Reducing the cost of drilling results in lowering oil prices.

15. Oil being a complex mixture of hydrocarbons makes it possible to separate it into various fractions.

16. Besides being important as a fuel, natural gas is an important raw material for chemical industry.

17. There is a great problem of refineries polluting the environment.

18. Without being treated oil is of little economic value.

Ex. 7 Complete the following sentences using the Gerund and Gerundial Constructions.

1. Excuse (I ask a question)

2. Thank you for (you help me)

3. Our group has succeded in (to solve the problem)

4. The experiment is worth (to do)

5. Would you mind (I open the window)

6. Goon(toread)

7. I insist on (to be told the truth)

8. I object to (she is sent to the conference)

Ex.8 Answer the following questions.

1. Why is our University named after LM.Gubkin?

2. In what field of science did LM.Gubkin work?

3. What other scientists contributed to the development of petroleum industry and our university?

Ex. 9 Read the text and do the tasks that follow it.

Academician LM.Gubkin (1871-1939) is the founder of the Russian State University of Oil and Gas. He is known as the prominent scholar who established a new branch of geological science in Russia - petroleum geology. It should be noted that as a petroleum geologist he was mainly concerned with the exploration for hydrocarbons. He advocated the organic theory of oil origin. In his fundamental

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work "Studies on Oil"* I.M.Gubkin describes the conditions of accumulating organic matter and the changes it undergoes. In addition to studying the origin of oil Gubkin was interested in the problems of stratigraphy, tectonics and other geological subdisciplines. It was Gubkin who recommended to apply, develop and perfect a multi-disciplined approach in searching for hydrocarbons. He stated that petroleum geology should be integrated with physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and other sciences. Thanks to Gubkin's ideas new oil fields were discovered.

Another focus of his academic interests was the rational use of hydrocarbon resources. Particular attention was directed to exploratory drilling and oil field development.

Apart from the research work I.M.Gubkin was engaged in teaching. I.M.Gubkin put forward a new idea of training a petroleum engineer with a profound academic background. He stated that a petroleum engineer should be an expert in deep drilling, exploitation, chemistry and technology of oil as well as economics. With this in mind he founded the petroleum department at the Mining Academy. In 1930 on the basis of this department the Moscow Oil Institute was formed and Gubkin was its first rector.

Here he had several years' experience of teaching a special course of petroleum geology which he had introduced into the curriculum.

LM.Gubkin put forward a new concept of teaching petroleum engineers. He was the first to introduce a special-purpose academic program designed to balance theory and practice, field and lab studies. On his initiative many outstanding scholars in the field of petroleum engineering were invited to deliver lectures and do R&D** at the Institute.

1. Speak on Gubkin's research work.

2. Speak on Gubkin's contribution to the foundation and development of the Russian State University of Oil and Gas.

The following phrases can help you:

1. prominent scholar

2. to found smth

3. to be concerned with

4. to be (particular) interested in

5. to advocate a theory

6. the focus of his interests

7. to be engaged in

8. to put forward an idea (a concept)-

9. to train specialists

10. background

11. to be an expert -

12. to deliver lectures

13. to do R&D

выдающийся ученый

основывать что-либо

заниматься чем-либо

интересоваться (в частности) чем-либо

поддерживать теорию

его основной интерес

• заниматься чем-либо

• предложить идею (концепцию) готовить специалистов подготовка, квалификация быть специалистом

• читать лекции

• заниматься исследованием и разработкой

* The book is considered to be a hand book of a petroleum geologist. ** R&D - Research and Development

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1. arouse v

2. attractive a

3. abundances

abundant in smth a

4. flexibility n

5. tremendous a

6. compete v

competitor n

7. compare v

8. byproduct и

9. vent v

10. flarev

11. experience n

experience v

Words to the text «NATURAL GAS».

вызывать, пробуждать

Oil reserves in the Baltic and Barents seas have already aroused Russia's great interest.

привлекательный, притягательный

Goods are offered at attractive prices at this supermarket.

an attractive force; an attractive idea

изобилие, богатство

Abundance of mineral resources is an important factor for the development of national economy of any country.

богатый чем-либо

Russia is abundant in mineral resources, гибкость, приспособляемость

Flexibility of man to different weather conditions is surprising, громадный

a tremendous amount of work; a tremendous difference;

a tremendous explosion соревноваться, конкурировать

The world's best athletes compete in the Olympic games.

Russia can compete with other countries in oil trade, конкурент

Competitors in business keep their secrets from each other.

сравнивать, сопоставлять

If you compare the old and the new models, you'll see the changes we have made.

побочный продукт

When oil is extracted, gas is often obtained as a byproduct, выбрасывать, выпускать

In village houses smoke is vented through chimneys, сжигать (бросовые газы в факеле)

Unfortunately, when producing oil a certain portion of gas is flared, опыт (жизненный), стаж практической работы

She has 5 years' teaching experience.

I know from experience what will happen, испытывать, знать по опыту

Working in the North the oilmen experienced many difficulties.

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12. diverse a

13. feedstock n

разнообразный

The wild life in Africa is extremely diverse, сырье

14. offshore» ant. onshore

Most countries buy feedstocks for refining and export petroleum products, шельф (моря)

15. access n accessible a

16. distinguish v

17. dissolve v

Russia has begun offshore oil production in the Barents and Baltic seas.

доступ

The password will give access to the computer, доступный

The seas of the Arctic Ocean are not accessible for ships in winter, различать

He doesn't seem able to distinguish right from wrong. растворять(ся)

Water dissolves salt. Salt dissolves in water. 18. undergo v (шккпуепОподвергаться, претерпевать (undergone)

V

19. accurate a

20. guide v

21. share n

22. employ v

The new equipment underwent different tests, точный

The information should be based on accurate measurements. 1) руководить, 2) направлять

1. Professor guide students in their studies.

2. In early days sailors were guided by the stars. доля, часть

Russia's share of oil and gas in the world production is rather large.

1. использовать, применять,

2. нанимать на работу, предоставлять работу

23. deplete v

24. cavity n

1. Different chemical substances are employed in drilling muds.

2. One hundred men are employed by the firm, истощать

Natural resources are being depleted due to man's activity, полость, каверна, пустота или трещина в породе (в металле)

A cavity is a hollow within a solid body.

A cavity in an alloy can cause the failure of a structure.

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25. amount to v насчитывать, равняться

The distance between London and New York amounts to 5 506 km.

26. be credited to относить за счет чего-либо

The quick development of Saudi Arabia is credited to its great reserves of oil.

27. giant а гигантский

An offshore platform is a giant structure of metal and concrete.

NATURAL GAS

While the history of crude oil goes back to the 19-th century, it was only in the 1950s that the story of natural gas began to arouse worldwide interest.

Nevertheless, natural gas appears to be a major and increasingly attractive energy source for the 21 -st century. Due to its abundance in reserves, its environmental friendliness and its flexibility, the use of natural gas is already showing a tremendous development.

Natural gas is an oil competitor on fuel markets, but often it is its associate in the hydrocarbon reservoirs. Due to this fact and because of their having comparable origins and locations it seems logical to draw a parallel between natural gas and crude oil.

After oil having been discovered, for decades gas was considered to be its useless byproduct and was vented to atmosphere or flared. But at present time the natural gas industry is experiencing rapid growth thanks to the diverse use of natural gas as a fuel and a feedstock for the petrochemical industry.

An increasing part of the reservoirs is located offshore, in poorly accessible areas, often far away from the major consumption sites. The industry faces therefore great technical and economical problems of transporting natural gas to the consumers.

Three types of natural gas are generally distinguished:

1. nonassociated gas which is not in contact with oil

2. gas cap — associated gas overlying the oil phase in the reservoir

3. associated gas "dissolved" in the oil in the reservoir (dissolved gas).

However, more than the type of natural gas and the properties of oil with which it may be associated, it is the chemical composition of the gas that is the most important factor. It conditions the processing that the gas will have to undergo to meet the specifications of its transporting by pipeline or in the form of LNG (liquefied natural gas). The knowledge of the composition and the properties of natural gas is essential in all stages of production, processing, transportation and storage.

Geological studies guide a closer understanding of the factors influencing the composition and location of natural gas reservoirs. Modeling the formation and migration of natural gas gives an increasingly accurate forecasting tool. This knowledge helps guide exploration operations and reduce the risk of wildcatting.

A growing share of gas reserves being found offshore or in harsh areas makes necessary the development of techniques designed to improve productivity and to lower costs. Different natural gas processing operations can be employed to meet the specifications required for the transportation or use of natural gas. Natural gas is transported by pipelines as compressed gas or liquefied gas.

Natural gas storage is necessary for the seasonal regulation of consumption and gas supply, as demand for instance, for heating is different in winter and in summer. Two main storage methods are employed:

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1. cryogenic storage in tanks, as LNG

2. underground storage in depleted reservoirs and salt cavities.

Gas discoveries have gradually spread to all the continents, in fact, to more than 80 countries. In Russia its proved reserves which only amounted to 2-10¹² m³ in 1960 jumped to 46.9-10¹² m³ in 2000. This clearly places Russia at the top of the world's gas reserves list. Most of this increase can be credited to the discoveries of the largest reservoirs of the globe in Siberia. New supergiant reservoirs were discovered north of Siberia in the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea.

Ex. 1 a) Derive nouns from the following adj ectives using the suffix -ness and translate them. Friendly, hard, harsh, attractive, correct, kind, good, exact.

b) Derive adjectives from the following nouns using the suffix -less and -ful and translate them.

Use, power, fruit, care, help, meaning, thought. .

Ex.2 Derive new words from the following ones using the prefixes:

1. over — сверх, чрезмерно (часто соответствует в русском языке приставке пере-) under — недостаточно (часто соответствует в русском языке приставке недо-). Lie, estimate, heat, production, spread, consumption, dry.

2. sub — соответствует в русском языке приставке под-. Marine, sea, divide, group, arctic, commission, surface, fraction.

Ex.3 Form all the possible derivatives of the folio wing words.

Product, attract, friend, develop, compare, consume, transport, differ, depend, employ, require, heat, store.

Ex.4 Find synonyms to the following words and word combinations in the text.

very	different
to provoke	to differentiate
thanks to	to be subjected to
to be combined with	to obtain
wealth	part
to govern	to use
great	method
to draw a parallel	however
secondary product	exact
Find antonyms to the	following words and word cor
to repell	slow
finished product	solidified
onshore	to raise costs
near

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Ex.6 Find English equivalents in the text.

1. вызывать интерес во всем мире

2. безопасность для окружающей среды

3. находит широкое развитие

4. газ часто сопутствует нефти

5. большая часть коллекторов

6. обуславливает переработку

7. очень точный инструмент прогнозирования

8. риск разбуривания разведочных скважин

9. соответствовать техническим условиям (характеристикам)

10. можно отнести за счет

Ex. 7 Choose the proper word.

1. The company has extensive professional... (experience, experiment) in analyzing gas reservoirs.

2. The company has conducted a lot of... (experiences, experiments) in analyzing gas reservoirs.

3. ... (near, nearly) 1,000 km of seismic data were processed.

4. The basin covers.. .(near, nearly) 174 sq km northeast of the Puesto Hernaudez oil field.

5. The basin occupies a large territory.. .(near, nearly) the Fort McMurray area.

6. .. .(reserves, resources) will continue to be created out of a .. .(reserve, resource) the limits of which are not known and will never been known.

7. .. .(exploration, exploitation) in the region began with surface mapping, gravity surveys and the drilling of several wells.

8. The... (exploration, exploitation) history of the pipeline will start in 3 years.

9. Gas is considered to be an.. .(increasing, increasingly) attractive fuel.

10. (Increasing, increasingly) C0₂ in the atmosphere effects the quality of the air that we breathe.

11. Sakhalin-1 project consists of three (offshore, onshore) oil and gas fields in the sea of Okhotsk of Sakhalin Island.

12. Oil will be moved by pipeline for further processing at a new (offshore, onshore) plant on the island.

Ex.8 Translate the sentences in writing. Use the words from the text "Natural Gas".

1. Газ является очень привлекательным источником энергии.

1. Промышленная разработка газовых месторождений началась в 50-е годы прошлого века.

2. Доля газа в мировой экономике растет благодаря его безопасности для окружающей среды и изобилию его запасов.

2. Раньше газ рассматривали как бесполезный побочный продукт нефти.

3. Сейчас газ стал основным конкурентом нефти на энергетическом рынке.

4. Газ также используется в качестве сырья для нефтехимической промышленности.

5. Гигантские запасы газа расположены на шельфе в труднодоступных районах.

6. Промышленности приходится решать проблемы транспортировки газа потребителю.

7. Перед транспортировкой газ подвергается различным методам переработки.

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10. Природный газ хранится в специальных емкостях или в истощенных газовых коллекторах.

10. Российские запасы газа насчитывают 40% мировых запасов газа.

Ex. 9 Fill in the blanks with the appropriate prepositions given below.

1. ... transporting gas is compressed or liquefied.

2. ...its flexibility natural gas is widely used.

3. ... being produced gas is processed.

4. Gas is rarely found... oil.

5. ... being a perfect fuel, gas is used as a feedstock for petrochemical industry.

6. At present... being flared gas finds wide use.

7. Gas can be associated... oil in a reservoir.

8. Gas can be transported... pipeline, barges and tankers.

9. The properties... natural gas are essential... gas processing.

10. Gas is delivered to the places of consumption... its transporting through pipelines.

(by, with, without, instead of, in addition to, for, after, due to, of, before)

Ex.10 Translate the following sentences. Mind the Gerund.

1. The refinery aims at producing high-quality products for both domestic and export consumption.

2. The policy of the company resulted in oil prices remaining quite high.

3; In addition to minimizing the effects of subnormal reservoir pressure the new technique is developed to prolong the life of a well.

4. Deriving the maximum accurate information from modeling is a complex process.

5. The fluid can be pumped without being lost into the formation.

6. By adding heat to a solid body we transform it into a liquid.

7. Storing C0₂ in depleted gas reservoirs is only one of several options for reducing atmospheric emissions.

8. After being processed in LNG, the gas is shipped to markets.

9. The seismic data show that the structure has the potential of being a very large.possible find.

10. Reducing hydrogen consumption by avoiding hydrotreating can save a refinery a tremendous operating cost.

11. Though ancient people's applying petroleum is a proved fact, it wasn't until the invention of a kerosene lamp and automobile when it became really necessary.

12. Petroleum being impure (с примесями) makes it impossible to use it without being refined first.

13. After the drilling site having been prepared the construction team brings in the rig, drilling equipment and a derrick.

14. Modeling the formation and migration of natural gas prevents from unnecessary wildcatting.

15. Apart from being flexible natural gas demonstrates environmental friendliness.

16. We know of gas industry experiencing rapid growth thanks to gas being a perfect fuel anda feedstock for the petrochemical industry.

17. It's no use discussing the fact that natural gas is an oil competitor on the fuel markets.

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18. It's worth mentioning that supergiant reservoirs were discovered in the north of Russia.

19. Natural gas will continue fueling new power plants due to its abundance and environmental friendliness.

20. It's not possible to discuss natural gas without considering crude oil and other competing fuels.

21. After processing in the plants gas must also meet the specifications in the midstream markets.

Ex. 11 Render the following text in English.

Промышленная добыча газа имеет более короткую историю, чем промышленная добыча нефти. Промышленная разработка газовых месторождений началась в 50-х годах 20-го века.

Раньше газ считали бесполезным сопутствующим продуктом нефти, который можно выпускать в атмосферу и сжигать., Лишь небольшое количество газа использовали как топливо. Еще Д.И. Менделеев предсказывал, что газ будет использоваться не только как топливо, но и как ценное сырье для химической промышленности. Он говорил, что сжигать газ — это топить печь ассигнациями.

По правде говоря, в настоящее время газ является серьезным конкурентом нефти на топливном рынке, т.к. он имеет ряд преимуществ - он не так сильно загрязняет окружающую среду, его легче транспортировать. Кроме того, сейчас найдены огромные запасы газа как на шельфе, так и на суше. К сожалению, большая часть найденных запасов газа на шельфе расположена в труднодоступных районах. Поэтому возникают значительные проблемы при разработке таких месторождений и транспортировке газа потребителю.

Чтобы транспортировать газ по трубопроводу, его подвергают определенной обработке — газ транспортируют либо в сжатом, либо в сжиженном состоянии. Сжиженный газ также можно транспортировать в танкерах и цистернах, причем химический состав газа обуславливает вид переработки и транспортировки. Знание состава и свойств природного газа важны на всех стадиях добычи, переработки, транспортировки и хранения.

Стоит упомянуть, что газ можно хранить в специальных хранилищах, расположенных далеко от места добычи. Например, подземные хранилища могут располагаться около больших городов. Эти хранилища заполняются газом летом, когда потребляется меньше топлива, а зимой, в пик отопительного сезона, газ доставляется потребителю. Установлено, что если газ будут выкачивать из пласта с постояннойскоростью, то газовое месторождение будет давать больше газа за более длительный период. Газ может также храниться в истощенных нефтяных и газовых коллекторах, а также в водоносных горизонтах (aquifers).

В заключение следует сказать, что газ, по-видимому, будет самым распространенным энергетическим источником 21 века.

Ex. 12 Here is an example of a summary of the text "Oil Business" (Unit 2). Now write your own summary of the text "Natural Gas". The underlined connecting words will help you.

Oil business includes upstream, midstream and downstream operations. But every petroleum engineer should have a general idea of the origin, composition and properties of oil. As oil originates in porous rocks, sedimentary basins are a prime aim for the oil hunters. So to find an oil accumulation a geologist should study the conditions of oil formation and accumulation. However, only drilling can prove the presence of oil. After the drilling site has been prepared, the rig is to be constructed. While oil recovery

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depends on natural pressure, additional energy must be supplied if natural pressure is not enough. Then, after extraction, oil must be transported from the fields to the place where it is consumed. Thus pipelines, tankers, barges and others are the means of transportation of oil to storage tanks or to refineries. And the basic job of a refinery is to convert petroleum into useful products. Distribution and marketing are the final links in the petroleum industry chain.

Ex. 13 Look through the texts and choose the one related to your speciality.

Text A

Rapid advances in computer, robotic and telecommunication technologies are removing drilling

personnel from the wellsite, allowing remotely controlled or automated systems to perform the work

traditionally supported by humans. Computers will drill future wells much like they guide airplanes or

operate factories. Computers have proven to be enormous reducers of cost and big generators of

' productivity.

Along with remotely controlled rigs the industry will develop new tools that can be easily controlled by computers. The mud (буровой раствор) system will no longer exist as a series of pits, tanks, pumps situated around the rig site and interconnected with a variety of pipes, cables, and channels. , Instead, it will be replaced with a closed system that operates like a refinery. J

Chemicals and materials will be automatically cleaned, dried, compacted and packaged. So new technologies will embrace upstream, midstream and downstream sectors.

Perhaps these changes will take longer than what most people think. However, it will happen much faster than the changes of the last 100 years have happened.

^V Text В 1

Arefinery is a factory. A refinery takes a raw material—crude oil—to transform it into kerosene, I gasGline, lubricants and hundreds of other useful products.

A typical large refinery costs billions of dollars to build and millions more to maintain and upgrade. It should be mentioned, it runs around the clock (круглые сутки) 365 days a year, employs between 1000 and 2000 people and occupies as much land as several hundred football fields.

Refining breaks crude oil down into its various components, which then are selectively reconfigured into new products. All refineries perform three basic steps: separation, conversion and treatment. In the process of separation crude oil is separated into components and fractions according to their weight and boiling point. Through conversion most low-value fractions become finished products. The most widely used conversion method is known to be (called) cracking because it uses heat and pressure to "crack" heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones. The basic gasoline-making process is fluid catalytic cracking, or "catcracking". A catalyst is a substance that accelerates chemical reactions. Treatment is the finishing touch. It involves blending, purifying to improve products quality.

'■ TextC • • ■ ■ '

,.

Upstream activities are known to include exploration, drilling and production.

To drill a well is a highly complex and expensive process that requires strict planning for success. The science of drilling has advanced drilling from cable tool to rotary methods, from vertical wells to horizontal ones.

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As practiced today, drilling is known to involve heavy-duty equipment, a variety of fluids and sophisticated instrumentation. For many decades drilling has been associated with the drilling rig known to be an assembly of tools, machinery and other equipment. A column of drill pipes with a drilling bit at the end is lowered into the well, making its way through the formations.

Rigs of tomorrow are unlikely to look much different from today's rigs, yet they are to be more compact and mobile.

TextD

Reservoir engineering is known to be a part of petroleum engineering. It maybe defined as the applied science concerned with the movement of fluids to, from, and within natural underground reservoirs. More specifically, it is concerned with the behavior of reservoir fluids and matrix after the reservoir has been penetrated by one or more wells.

In the practice of reservoir engineering, the reservoir engineer determines the properties of the reservoir matrix and of its fluids, interprets these data to predict reservoir-fluid behavior, and recommends the development and production program that will result in the maximum economic recovery of hydrocarbons - spacing of wells, gas-oil and water-oil ratios, rate of production, stimulation procedures, pressure-control program.

TextE

Exploration is not what it was even a generation ago. Two key elements in the exploration business are: estimates (оценки) of the probable success and the probable field size. The aim of exploration is to discover the best areas for drilling. There are four stages in the process of exploration: aerial survey, geological survey, geophysical survey and exploration drilling.

Geologic exploration seems to have progressed since the early days of petroleum business. Now it's not the physical hunt for hydrocarbons but a search for new places in which to conduct the hunt. In the course of time explorers discovered relationships between pressure, temperature, fluid volumes and rock properties.

No wells are drilled without accumulating and interpreting geophysical information, especially 3D seismic data. Industry specialists have discovered a broad menu of ways to gather, process, and interpret seismic data and have the computing power to perform the calculations. Not so long ago seismic data were mainly used to identify subsurface structures. Nowadays explorers extrapolate rock properties and pressure, in some cases the presence of hydrocarbons from geophysical data.

Petroleum specialists consider exploration to be the initial step of upstream activities.

TextF

Hydrocarbons with no transportation to market can't be economically produced. Thanks to all the discoveries of transportation know-how, volumes of recoverable hydrocarbons have grown. Constructing oil and gas pipelines onshore and offshore reflects developing less expensive technologies. Great progress in surveying and mapping resulted in new methods of route engineering.

The laying of a pipeline requires a whole series of operations that must be carefully planned to reduce investment costs. The operations are performed in the following order: laying a working track, trenching, cladding (preparation of the pipes), bending, welding, brushing, coating, burial, landscape reconditioning. Crossing rivers and built-up areas requires special operations.

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TextG

Equipment and materials are very important in all the stages of petroleum business. A mechanical engineer should know the properties of the materials used in the industry, must also know the factors affecting the behavior of these materials.

Reducing the risk of corrosion requires one to select appropriate materials for the application. Oil and gas operators use some exotic materials to optimize corrosion protection. These materials were mostly developed for specific oil and gas projects.

For example, alloy 400 is the first nickel alloy invented and one of the most extensively used because of its excellent corrosion resistance to a wide range of environment. It also has excellent resistance to neutral and alkaline salts. Its behavior in seawater is excellent.

Text H

Well logging is an integral part of reservoir engineering. It provides the largest source of data. These are used with core (керн) and fluid data to determine reservoir depth and thickness, porosity, lithology, hydrocarbon saturation (насыщение) and permeability. This information is also necessary in drilling, completion (завершение) and operation of wells, geophysical and geological exploration, development of reservoir models for efficient production.

Text I

Oil and gas industry is characteristically a high cost business. Petroleum economics provides the tools with which to quantify and assess the financial risks involved in all the cycles of oil and gas business. Different techniques are applied to advise management on the attractiveness of investment opportunities, to assist in selecting the best options, and to determine how to maximize the value of existing assets.

Large capital intensive projects are characteristic of oil and gas industry. Planning and controlling a project, which may involve hundreds of personnel, millions of individual items, and a significant investment has become a discipline of its own.

Ex. 14 Answer the following questions:

1. What branch of petroleum industry are you interested in?

2. What is the main focus of your professional interests?

3. What must a good specialist in your field know?

4. What problems can a specialist in your field face?

5. Do you have any practical experience?

6. Do you think a profound academic background helps in mastering your profession?

7. Are you engaged in R&D?

8. Can you name any prominent scholar in your field?

Ex. 15 Speak on your speciality. The words below can help you.

Petroleum Geology explores the origins ofhydrocarbons and forecasts the subsurface conditions necessary to accumulate oil and gas.

upstream to originate

geologist to accumulate

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hydrocarbons	to migrate
source rocks
sedimentary rocks
trap
reservoir rock
cap rock
porous rock
Exploration describes the use <	3f geophysical and geological methods in search for accumulations
ofhydrocarbons.
upstream	to provide
interpretation	to process
geophysicist	to identify
well logging	to evaluate
seismic
porosity
permeability
survey
hydrocarbons
Drilling presents drilling technology and subsurface conditions faced bv petroleum engineers.
upstream	to drill
exploratory well	to construct •
(wild cat)	to lower
dryhole	to cut
appraisal hole
drillingrig		' ' ' ^
drilling fluids
drill pipe
horizontal well
bit
Production discusses the various	i methods used to ma;	timize recovery of petroleum from subsurface
reservoirs.
upstream	to extract
natural pressure	to produce
primary (secondary) recovery	to depend
porosity
permeability
pump
natural flow
artificial means

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Transportation describes different means of transporting hydrocarbons and their products.

midstream to lay a pipeline

pipelines to weld pipes

tankers to construct

barges

tank trucks

storage tainks

route engineering

Refining investigates the complex chemical and physical conversion of crudes into useful products.

downstream to refine

treatment to separate

catalyst to convert

refinery

heavy (light) hydrocarbons *

fractions

Automation and computers embrace all operations of oil and gas business.

upstream . to develop

midstream to replace

downstream to reduce

computer to invent

robotic to remove

telecommunication to estimate

alternative technologies to calculate

modeling to model

costs to integrate

remotely controlled systems

automation

automatization

automated systems

E-business

data processing

software

hardware

Mechanical engineering studies the science of materials and constracts machines and equipment for oil and gas industry.

upstream to design

midstream to select

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downstream	to weld
behavior	to increase
properties	to choose
equipment	to withstand
alloys
corrosion protection
welding
coating
resistance
destruction
strength
Economics provides	; the tools with which to assess and;
demand	to gather information
supply	to evaluate
capital costs	to estimate
operating costs	to forecast
oil and gas prices	to take a decision
budget

economic analysis Ex.16 Translate in writing. Use a dictionary.

The major gas reserves on Sakhalin, a Russian island directly north of Japan, may eventually be developed for export by pipeline. Shell's Sakhalin II project is being developed for exports of LNG, and so ExxonMobil's Sakhalin I project is the most likely supplier for a pipeline project. Reserves at Sakhalin I are estimated at 17.1 trillion ft³, and ExxonMobil may eventually be awarded additional areas of the island. Apipeline linking Sakhalin into the Russian gas grid is one possible avenue of development and would come very close to China, creating an opportunity to be extended into northeastern China in the future.

Japan being another option for this pipeline export makes this project more attractive. In this scenario, a 1500 km pipeline would link Sakhalin to the main Japanese island, Honshu, via the less heavily populated northern island of Hokkaido. A feasibility study for this route is currently being undertaken by ExxonMobil. As commercial production of gas from Sakhalin I is not expected to begin until 2008, both of these pipeline options are medium to long term plans. ExxonMobil is believed to favour the Japan option, while the Russian government prefers China. However, gas reserves on Sakhalin may ultimately prove to be adequate enough for both. (Oil arid Gas Journal)

Ex. 17 Think of several reasons why natural gas is becoming the leader on the world fuel market.

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_{UNIT 4}

Text: Grammar:

Grammar Revision:

Ecology

1. The Conditional Sentences

2. The Subjunctive Mood

Contact Clauses

Ex. 1 Read the following international words and word combinations and give their Russian equivalents.

a) harmony	['ha:mani]		cycle
dominate	['dommeit]		methane
crisis	['kraisis]		catastroph
human	['hjuman]		dramatical
effect	[i'fekt]		efficient
b) principal symptoms		['prmsapal	simptams]
toxic emission		['toksik I'mi	Jan]
to invest a project		[ta m'vest э	'prod3akt]
sulfur oxide		['sAlfa 'oksaid]
nitrogen oxide		['naitrid3sn	'oksaid]
carbon dioxide		['ka:ban dai	'oksaid]
to control atmosphere		[ta kan'troul 'setmasfia]

['saikl]

['meGein]

[,ka3ta'strofik]

[dra'mastikah]

[Yfijant]

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Unit 4 Ex. 2 Insert the conjunctions "that "or" which" and translate the sentences. Consider the following examples:

Everybody knows (that) oil lies in sedimentary rocks, (дополнительное придаточное

предложение)

Все знают, что нефть залегает в осадочных породах.

Different fuels (which) man uses now are obtained from oil. (определительное

придаточное предложение)

Различные топлива, которые сейчас применяет человек, получают из нефти.

1. We can say titanium was discovered twice—in 1790 and in the 1940s.

2. We know the higher the temperature the less electrical conductivity of metals.

3. The heat a body contains is the kinetic energy of its molecules.

4. Mechanical properties metals possess are important for all engineering materials.

5. Stainless steels different industries use are almost free of corrosion.

6. It's true energy is wasted in industry.

7. Many scientists suppose global warming is a real phenomenon.

Ex. 3 Translate the sentences. Mind different meanings of the words "since" and "for".

^^—— ^c ^_^—-— Для

since с тех пор как for в течение

~~~~~ таккак ^^~~~~- таккак

1. A geophysicist first should be a geologist since the interpretation of the geological studies is the most important part of any geophysical survey.

2. Gazprom has signed 50 agreements with foreign hydrocarbon companies in its upstream activities since 1986.

3. The environmental protection has developed into an oil industry business since the time when people began suffering from smog caused by refineries.

4. Natural gas from the Norwegian North Sea is an important source of energy for it will serve the European market for many decades.

5. For Europe Norway and Russia are the major natural gas suppliers whose importance will continue to grow in years to come.

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Unit 4

Conditional Sentences (Условные предложения)

I	Главное предложение	Придаточное предложение
реальное условие, отно-	I shall finish the work Я закончу эту работу.	if I have time (if am free).
сящееся к настоящему или будущему времени		если у меня будет время.
II предположительное условие, относящееся к настоящему или будущему времени	I should finish the work Я бы закончил работу,	if I had time tomorrow (if I were free) (now), если бы у меня было время завтра (сейчас)
III нереальное условие, относящееся к	I should have finished the work Я бы закончил работу,	if I had had time yesterday (if I had been free).
прошедшему времени		если бы у меня было время вчера.