- •2. Modern Germanic languages and their distribution in various parts of the world
- •3. The comparative and historical method
- •4. Linguistic substratum, superstratum, adstratum
- •5. External and internal causes of changes in the languages.
- •6. Theories of the Germanic languages origin.
- •7. Sources of our knowledge of early germanic society
- •8. Pliny’s classification of germanic tribes
- •9. Early germanic society
- •12 Runic Alphabet
- •13. Gothic alphabet
- •19. The 1st and 2nd consonant shifts: compare and contrast
- •20. Stress in the Germanic languages.
- •21. Old Germanic system of vowels.
- •22. Ablaut and its functions.
- •23. Front mutation. Umlaut.
- •24. Velar umlaut
- •25. The structure of a substantive in the Germanic Languages
- •26. Morphological classification of nouns
- •27.The substantive .The category of case in comparison with the modern one.
- •28. The substantive. The category of number in comparison with the modern one.
- •29. The substantive. The category of gender in comparison with the modern one.
- •30. The adj. In og languages and in MnE
- •31. The pronoun in og languages and in Modern English
- •32. The numerals and adverbs in og languages and in me.
- •33. Morphological classification of og verbs.
- •34. Og verb. The category of tense in comparison with the modern.
- •35. Og verb. The category of voice in comparison with the modern.
- •36 Strong verbs.
- •37. Weak verbs
- •38. Preterit-present verbs
- •39. Og Irregular Verbs
19. The 1st and 2nd consonant shifts: compare and contrast
1) 1st shift – correspondences between consonants of Germanic and those of other I-E languages (Grimm used mostly Latin and Greek for illustration). 1st shift sets Germanic
And 2nd shift - sound changes which separate the Upper High German dialects from other West Germanic languages (Modern English, Dutch, Low German)
2) 1st shift (720-250 BC) and 2nd shift( 5th – 7th AD)
3) The resulting language of the second shift, Old High German, can be contrasted with the other continental West Germanic languages, which for the most part did not experience the shift (English “make” – High German “machen”)
20. Stress in the Germanic languages.
Stress- is the emphasis given to some syllables. When PG was forming its system of stress the last appeared to be fixed, powerful, non-free. It means that every single word in P.G. language obtained a single stress which couldn’t have been changed under any circumstances. In Germanic languages stress became fixed on the first syllable or as much as possible close to the beginning of the word. It resulted gradual weakening of endings and their loss.
21. Old Germanic system of vowels.
The changes in vowels touched the three most important IE vowels (a, e, o). They could be long or short. The main change which happened to the vowels concerned only those which were stressed and these changes appeared to be the following IE a, o appeared in other PG as a single vowel a. IE long a and long o appeared in PG in one single sound long o.
I E :vir-wair
E I :ventus-wind
U O :iugum-ok
Also there were processes when diphthongs became monophthongs ( ai – a; ei – e) and monophthong became diphthongs ( e- eo). Also we observe the processes of Ablaut and Umlaut.
22. Ablaut and its functions.
The term ablaut was coined in the early 19th c. by the linguist Jacob Grimm. The process of Ablaut or Gradation is an independent vowel change accompanying a change in grammatical function. For example, the vowel change in English from I and A to U in sing (present tense)-sang (preterit)—sung (past-participle) referred to as an ablaut. In the G language gradation was preserved and could be seen the most vividly on the example of strong English verbs while the other IE language also had the examples of ablaut on other parts of speech. Gradation is not confined (ограниченный) to verbs. We see the alternation of e and o grades in the Greek lego(I speak) and the related noun logos(speech). And the same alternation lies behind the MnE: bind-band; ride-rode.
23. Front mutation. Umlaut.
Umlaut – is a modification of the vowel which causes it to be pronounced more to the front of the mouth to accommodate (вмещать) a vowel in the following syllable, especially when it’s an inflectional suffix: woman-women; long-length; old-elders. Umlaut may be derived into two kinds: front mutation, velar umlaut. Front mutation is the most important type of umlaut, which is caused by an i/j. Having brought about a complete change in vowel quality (one phoneme is replaced by another), the i/j or I disappear or change to e.
a > e namian-nemnon
o + i/j > e mohti-mehta
u > y fullian-fyllan